Mind Map Gallery Learning Design and Technology Mindmap for 6330 Penny HOU
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Learning Design and Technology Mindmap for 6330 Penny HOU
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Edited at 2020-09-28 12:11:09
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Learning Design and TechnologyMindmap for 6330Penny HOU
1. Design of Learning/Instructional ProductsIntroduction
1. Instructional Design
1.1. About Instructional Design
1.2. Instructional Design in wikipedia
2. Kinds of Learning/Instructional Products
2.1. In Educational Institutions
2.1.1. ICT in Class
2.1.2. Partly E-learning
- develop skills of learning, thinking and communication- acquire ability to use technology to learn, to solve problems, to regulate learners' own thinking, orgnize, interpret and represent what they know to others, to communicate to find and make sense of information, to apply and innovate- improve and enable processes of effective learning to take place
2.1.3. Flexible Learning
2.1.3.1. - provide services resources and tools
2.1.4. Distance Education
2.1.4.1. - provide education at distance
2.1.4.2. - focus on bringing courses on-line
2.1.4.3. - products and services are inseparable
2.1.5. Education Staff Development
2.1.5.1. - solve organizational training needs
2.2. In Commercial Environment
2.2.1. Solve own training needs
2.2.1.1. - to train employees, management, partners, existing/potential customers
2.2.2. Provide specialized e-training
2.2.2.1. - corporate universities towards certification and non-certification
2.2.3. Develop digital content for sale
2.2.3.1. - knowledge objects
2.2.3.2. - learning objects
2.2.3.3. - entire courses
2.2.3.4. - accompanying material
2.2.4. Develop custom solutions for a client
2.2.4.1. - develop according to a client's needs, environment, curriculum content, scale of investment
3. Context for Learning/Instructional Design
3.1. Outsourcing
3.1.1. Entire project
3.1.2. Parts of a project
3.1.2.1. - partners- constructors/Vendors- consultants- freelancers
3.2. In-House
3.2.1. One-man job
3.2.2. Team work
3.2.2.1. - project manager- instructional designer- multimedia designer- multimedia author/programmer
3.2.3. Inter-departmental activity
3.3. Buy Existing Product/Solution
3.3.1. Of-the-shelf
3.3.2. Another company
3.3.3. Educational/Training provider
4. Project Development Stages
4.1. Analysis
4.2. Design
4.3. Development
4.4. Implementation
4.5. Evaluation
2. Instructional Design & Learning Theory
2.1. A model is a mental picture that helps us understanding something we cannot see or experience directly.(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
2.1.1. Instructional Design Models
2.1.1.1. Linear Model by Dick & Carey (1990)
2.1.1.1.1.
2.1.1.2. Spiral Model by Romiszowski (1981)
2.1.1.2.1.
2.1.1.3. Rapid Prototyping Model by Tripp & Bichelmeyer (1990)
2.1.1.3.1.
2.1.1.4. Oval Model by Kemp (1985)
2.1.1.4.1.
2.1.2. Technology Instructivist Models
2.1.2.1. Drill and Practice
2.1.2.2. Computer-based Tutorials
2.1.2.3. Intelligent Tutorial Systems
2.1.2.4. Gange's 9-events of Instruction
2.1.2.5. Reusable Learning Objects
2.1.2.5.1.
2.1.3. Technology Constructivist Models
2.1.3.1. Learning environments
2.1.3.2. Technology as a tool in a learning activity
2.1.3.3. Inquiries and problem solving
2.1.3.4. Cognitive tolls
2.1.3.5. On-line collaboration and knowledge building
2.1.3.6. WebQuest and ActiveLesson
2.1.3.7. Interactive Learning Objects
2.2. A theory - provides a general explanation for observations made over time;- explains and predicts behaviours;- can never be established beyond all doubt;- seldom has to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested, - but sometimes may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved.(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)
2.2.1. The Basics of the Learning Theories
2.2.1.1. Behaviourism
2.2.1.1.1. Based on observable changes in behaviour; it focuses on a new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.
2.2.1.1.1.1. Key players in the development of the behaviorist theory
2.2.1.1.1.1.1. Pavlov (1849-1936)
2.2.1.1.1.1.1.1. Classical conditioning/Stimulus substitution
2.2.1.1.1.1.1.1.1. Experiment of food, a dog and a bell
2.2.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1. Stimulus Generalization
2.2.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.2. Extinction
2.2.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.3. Spontaneous Recovery
2.2.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.4. Discrimination
2.2.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.5. Higher-Order Conditioning
2.2.1.1.1.1.2. Thorndike (1874-1949)
2.2.1.1.1.1.2.1. Apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems by emphasizing "accurate quantitative treatment of information".
2.2.1.1.1.1.2.2. Connectionism theory - learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response.
2.2.1.1.1.1.2.3. Laws based on the stimulus-response hypothesis
2.2.1.1.1.1.2.3.1. The "law of effect"
2.2.1.1.1.1.2.3.2. The "law of exercise"
2.2.1.1.1.1.2.3.3. The "law of readiness"
2.2.1.1.1.1.3. Watson (1878-1958)
2.2.1.1.1.1.3.1. Humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning.
2.2.1.1.1.1.3.1.1. Experiment of a young child and a white rat
2.2.1.1.1.1.3.1.1.1. The role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli
2.2.1.1.1.1.4. Skinner (1904--1990)
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.1. Changes in observable behaviour, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.1.1. Walden Two (1948)
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.1.1.1. A utopian society based on operant conditioning
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.1.2. Science and Human Behaviour (1953)
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.1.2.1. How the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.2. Operant behaviour(voluntary behaviours used in operating on the environment)
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.2.1. Operant Conditioning Mechanisms
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.2.1.1. Positive Reinforcement/reward
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.2.1.2. Negative Reinforcement
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.2.1.3. Extinction/Non- Reinforcement
2.2.1.1.1.1.4.2.1.4. Punishment
Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning
2.2.1.2. Cognitivism
2.2.1.2.1. Base on the thought process behind the behaviour; changes in behaviour are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind
2.2.1.2.1.1. Key Concepts of Cognitive Theory
2.2.1.2.1.1.1. Schema - an internal knowledge structure
2.2.1.2.1.1.2. Three-Stages Information Processing Model
2.2.1.2.1.1.2.1. Sensory Register
2.2.1.2.1.1.2.2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
2.2.1.2.1.1.2.3. Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM)
2.2.1.2.1.1.3. Meaningful Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.4. Serial Position Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.5. Practice Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.6. Transfer Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.7. Interference Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.8. Organization Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.9. Levels of Processing Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.10. State Dependent Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.11. Mnemonic Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.12. Schema Effects
2.2.1.2.1.1.13. Advance Organizers
2.2.1.3. Constructivism
2.2.1.3.1. Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema; it focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations.
2.2.1.3.1.1. Realistic VS. Radical Construction (Cobb, 1996, in Smorgansbord, 1997)
2.2.1.3.1.1.1. Realistic constructivism- cognitions is the process by which learners eventually construct mental structures that correspond to or match external structures located in the environment.
2.2.1.3.1.1.2. Radical constructivism- cognition serves to organize the learners experiential world rather than to discover ontological reality.
2.2.1.3.1.2. The Assumptions of Constructivism (Merrill, 1991, in Smorgansbord, 1997)
2.2.1.3.1.2.1. - knowledge is constructed from experience
2.2.1.3.1.2.2. - learning is a personal interpretation of the world
2.2.1.3.1.2.3. - learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience
2.2.1.3.1.2.4. - conceptual growth comes form the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning
2.2.1.3.1.2.5. - learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity
2.2.2. The History if Learning Theories in ID
2.2.2.1. Behaviourism & ID
2.2.2.1.1. Behavioural Objectives Movement
2.2.2.1.1.1. Taxonomic Analysis of Learning Behaviours
2.2.2.1.1.1.1. Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning
2.2.2.1.1.1.1.1. - knowledge
2.2.2.1.1.1.1.2. - comprehension
2.2.2.1.1.1.1.3. - application
2.2.2.1.1.1.1.4. - analysis
2.2.2.1.1.1.1.5. - synthesis
2.2.2.1.1.1.1.6. - evaluation
2.2.2.1.1.1.2. Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning
2.2.2.1.1.1.2.1. - verbal information
2.2.2.1.1.1.2.2. - intellectual skill
2.2.2.1.1.1.2.3. - cognitive strategy
2.2.2.1.1.1.2.4. - attitude
2.2.2.1.1.1.2.5. - motor skill
2.2.2.1.1.2. Mastery Learning
2.2.2.1.1.2.1. "Pretest, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the point of actual learning." (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990)
2.2.2.1.1.3. Military and Industrial Approach
2.2.2.1.1.3.1. Gagne's and Brigg's Model
2.2.2.1.1.3.1.1. - Action
2.2.2.1.1.3.1.2. - Object
2.2.2.1.1.3.1.3. - Situation
2.2.2.1.1.3.1.4. - Tools and Constraints
2.2.2.1.1.3.1.5. - Capability to be Learned
2.2.2.1.1.4. Accountability Movement
2.2.2.1.1.4.1. The standards and direction of education should stem from the consumer-society. (Bobbitt, 1900s)
2.2.2.1.2. Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction Movement
2.2.2.1.2.1. Contributors
2.2.2.1.2.1.1. Pressy
2.2.2.1.2.1.2. Peterson
2.2.2.1.2.1.3. W.W.II
2.2.2.1.2.1.4. Crowder
2.2.2.1.2.1.5. Skinner
2.2.2.1.3. Individualized Approaches to Instruction
2.2.2.1.3.1. Keller Plan (1963)
2.2.2.1.3.1.1. - individually paced.
2.2.2.1.3.1.2. - mastery learning.
2.2.2.1.3.1.3. - lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information.
2.2.2.1.3.1.4. - use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring, personal-social aspect of educational process.
2.2.2.1.3.2. Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) (1964)
2.2.2.1.3.2.1. - prepared units.
2.2.2.1.3.2.2. - behavioural objectives.
2.2.2.1.3.2.3. - planned instructional sequences.
2.2.2.1.3.2.4. - used for reading, math and science.
2.2.2.1.3.2.5. - included pretest and posttest for each unit.
2.2.2.1.3.2.6. - materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioural objectives.
2.2.2.1.3.3. Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967)
2.2.2.1.3.3.1. - schools selected items from about 6,000 behavioural objectives.
2.2.2.1.3.3.2. - each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were made up of approximately five objectives.
2.2.2.1.3.3.3. - mastery learning.
2.2.2.1.3.3.4. - remedial learning plus retesting.
2.2.2.1.4. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
2.2.2.1.4.1. Very much drill-and-practice - controlled by the program developer rather than the learner
2.2.2.1.5. Systems Approach to Instruction
2.2.2.1.5.1. Focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction
2.2.2.1.5.1.1.
2.2.2.2. Cognitivism & ID
2.2.2.2.1. Cognitivism and Computer-Based Instruction
2.2.2.2.1.1. Programming a computer to "think" like a person:Artificial intelligence
2.2.2.3. Constructivism & ID
2.2.2.3.1. "...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning environments which:" (Jonasson)
2.2.2.3.1.1. - Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of instruction by representing the natural complexity of the world
2.2.2.3.1.2. - Present authentic tasks - contextualize
2.2.2.3.1.3. - Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequences
2.2.2.3.1.4. - Foster reflective practice
2.2.2.3.1.5. Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction
2.2.2.3.1.6. - Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition
2.2.2.3.2. "...a constructivist design process should be concerned with designing environments which support the construction of knowledge, which..." (Jonasson)
2.2.2.3.2.1. - Is Based on Internal Negotiation
2.2.2.3.2.2. - Is Based on Social Negotiation
2.2.2.3.2.3. - Is Facilitated by Exploration of Real World Environments and Intervention of New Environments
2.2.2.3.2.4. - Results in Mental Models and provides Meaningful, Authentic Contexts for Learning and Using the Constructed Knowledge
2.2.2.3.2.5. - Requires an Understanding of its Own Thinking Process and Problem Solving Methods
2.2.2.3.2.6. - Modeled for Learners by Skilled Performers but Not Necessarily Expert Performers
2.2.2.3.2.7. - Requires Collaboration Among Learners and With the Teacher
2.2.2.3.2.8. - Provides ana Intellectual Toolkit to Facilitate and Internal Negotiation Necessary for Building Mental Models
2.2.3. Some Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theories
2.2.3.1.
3. Analysis Stage
3.1. Ways of Analysis
3.1.1. Interviews
3.1.2. Surveys
3.1.3. Observation
3.1.4. Focus Group
3.1.5. Researching organizational records and existing documentation
3.2. Conducting Analysis
3.2.1. Needs Analysis
3.2.1.1. What are the requirements?
3.2.1.2. What gap will be filled by the final project
3.2.2. Audience Analysis
3.2.2.1. Who are the final users of the product?
3.2.3. Environment Analysis
3.2.3.1. In what kind of settings will the product be used? (e.g. home, classroom, workplace, library)
3.2.3.2. How many people will interact simultaneously with the product? (e.g. individuals, sales representative and client, small training groups, collaborative)
3.2.3.3. Who is the intended audience? (e.g. children, managers, students, workers, teachers or general public)
3.2.3.4. What is the proposed platform and estimated number of users?
3.2.3.5. What media elements are required?
3.2.3.6. Is there a budget for infrastructure costs of purchasing/updating computers, desks, printers etc. ?
3.2.4. Content Analysis
3.2.4.1. What content needs to be delivered?
3.2.4.2. What format of the content is the most important?
3.2.4.3. How can this content be articulated?
3.2.5. System/Technology Analysis
3.2.5.1. What kind of technology will be used to implement/deliver the project?
3.2.6. Feasibility Analysis
3.2.6.1. Technical
3.2.6.2. Human
3.2.6.3. Economical
3.2.7. Risk Analysis
3.2.7.1. Are there any risks and limitation to the project?
4. Design Stage
4.1. Define a Goal(s)
4.2. Conduct Instructional Analysis (Performance, Task, Content Analysis)
4.2.1. - Analysis of job description
4.2.2. - Analysis of job-related documents
4.2.3. - Observation of people at work, directly or via recording
4.2.4. - Discussion with people about specific jobs
4.2.5. - Extrapolation of tasks from a customer's stated training needs
4.3. Analyze Learners and Context
4.4. Write Performance/Learning Objectives =
4.4.1. Performance objectives
4.4.2. Instructional objectives
4.4.3. Behavioural objectives
4.4.4. Specific instructional objectives
4.4.5. Learning outcomes
What will learners be able to do with knowledge and skills developed through engagement with the learning product?
4.5. Develop Assessment Strategy
4.5.1. - Drill and Practice
4.5.1.1. Multiple Choice
4.5.1.2. True or False
4.5.1.3. Fill in the Blank
4.5.1.4. Short Answer
4.5.1.5. Drag and Drop
4.5.2. - Essays
4.5.3. - Problem Soving
4.5.4. - Tasks
4.6. Develop Instructional Strategy
4.6.1. Content Sequence and Clustering
4.6.2. Learning Components
4.6.3. Student Groupings
4.6.4. Selection of Media and Delivery Systems
4.7. Arrange Instructional EventsGange, Briggs and Wager (1992)
4.7.1. Gaining Attention
4.7.2. Informing learner of the objective
4.7.3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning
4.7.4. Presenting the stimulus material
4.7.5. Providing learning guidance
4.7.6. Eliciting performance
4.7.7. Providing feedback about performance
4.7.8. Assessing the performance
4.7.9. Enhancing retention and transfer
4.8. Develop a set of Flowcharts
4.8.1. Showing flow of the project and all of its elements in clear way.
4.9. Develop Storyboards
4.9.1. Storyboards - are graphic organizers in the form of illustrations or images displayed in sequence for the purpose of pre-visualizing a motion picture, animation, motion graphic or interactive media sequence. (wikipedia)
4.10. Evaluating Flowchart and Storyboards
4.10.1. By
4.10.1.1. Project team
4.10.1.2. Editor
4.10.1.3. A client
4.10.1.4. A content mater expert
4.10.1.5. A representative of a real user (rare)
4.10.2. For
4.10.2.1. Content accuracy, appropriateness, completeness, coverage
4.10.2.2. Media, presentation, interface, interaction and treatment
4.10.2.3. Pedagogical quality/Instructional design
4.10.2.4. Technical issues
4.11. Write Design Specification Document
4.11.1. Screen area presentation
4.11.2. Authoring platform
4.11.3. Quality and format of graphics, videos, audio, and other media
4.11.4. Pedagogical considerations
4.12. A Structured Courseware Package Design
4.12.1. i. Opening
4.12.1.1. - Gain Attention
4.12.1.2. - Login- Collect information about the user: user name, id, class and password
4.12.1.3. - Automatically record date and time of access
4.12.1.4. - Inform a user about a lesson and objectives
4.12.1.5. - Inform about how to use the courseware
4.12.1.6. - Provide main navigation structure
4.12.1.7. - It is possible to begin from the point where a user left the courseware on the last visit.
4.12.2. ii. Content Presentation
4.12.2.1. - Content navigation through paging structure
4.12.2.2. - Keep information about pages visited and time spent at each page/section
4.12.2.3. - Keep information about sections completed
4.12.2.4. - Inform user about current page/pages visited/sections completed, pages left before completion of a section
4.12.2.5. - Pages might contain multimedia elements and interactive components
4.12.2.6. - Provide a map of a section with indication of visited areas
4.12.3. iii. Programmed Instructions
4.12.3.1. - Keep track of competed sections
4.12.3.2. - Prevent users from entering one section without completing the other section
4.12.3.3. - Allow access to quiz when all sections are complete
4.12.3.4. - Sections might follow with some questions and remediation
4.12.3.5. - Questions might preside a sections, used to identify "advanced standing" or readiness for access to a section (pre-testing)
4.12.4. iv. Quiz/Test
4.12.4.1. - Variety of questions: MCQ, true/false, fill-in-the-blank, match&marking, short answers
4.12.4.2. - Variety of interactions for questions: Key-press, hot-spot, clickable-object, text-entry, target-area, pull-down, drag-slider
4.12.4.3. - Randomized values to prevent copying or allow multiple practices
4.12.4.4. - Multimedia within questions
4.12.4.5. Enhanced interactivity in presentation of questions
4.12.4.6. - Allow access to external tools, sites, information
4.12.4.7. - Provide feedback: hints to the wrong, and additional information to the correct
4.12.4.8. - Presenting all questions at random or only certain number question from the bank of questions
4.12.4.9. - Allow each question to appear once, or allow multiple access to same questions until "mastery" is achieved
4.12.4.10. - Keep information about questions attended, results, time spend in a question, number of tries before getting the correct
4.12.4.11. - Inform learner about question attended, time spend, time left, attempts and tries left
4.12.5. v. Record of Results
4.12.5.1. - Present a user with quantitative feedback: score, grade, questions attempted and number of questions answered correctly or incorrectly, date of access, time spent within a lesson or a quiz
4.12.5.2. - Present a user with a certificate, coucher, and credit points
4.12.5.3. - Present a user with qualitative feedback: comment about performance, what to do next to improve performance or remediation
4.12.5.4. - Record results in an external document or in a data-base (local or over the network/internet)
5. Development Stage
5.1. Technical Review
5.1.1. Review the flowcharts and storyboards to evaluate if everything can be implemented as planned, otherwise, changes might be necessary
5.2. Develop a Prototype
5.2.1. A Prototype
5.2.1.1. Is a working model and a representation of your final project.
5.2.1.2. Provides sufficient information to allow a client and the team to have glimpse into the final product.
5.2.1.3. Is used as an important evolution tool.
5.2.2. Design of a Prototype
5.2.2.1. Interface Design
5.2.2.1.1. Layout
5.2.2.1.2. Size of display area
5.2.2.1.3. Resolution
5.2.2.1.4. Colour
5.2.2.2. Interaction Design
5.2.2.2.1. Buttons
5.2.2.2.2. Hot-spot areas
5.2.2.2.3. Key press and shortcuts
5.2.2.2.4. Pull-down menus
5.2.2.2.5. Text entry
5.2.2.2.6. Drag & drop
5.2.2.2.7. Sliders, Dialer
5.2.2.2.8. Check boxes, Radio boxes, Lists
5.2.2.2.9. Haptic devices
5.2.2.3. Presentation Design
5.2.2.3.1. Information design
5.2.2.3.1.1. diagrams, icons, symbols, images & photographs, tables & graphs, metaphors& analogies, spaces & lines
5.2.2.3.2. General treatments
5.2.2.3.3. Media design
5.2.2.3.3.1. graphics, photographs, audio, video, animations, text, sounds, effects and music
5.2.2.3.4. Typography
5.2.3. Author/program the product
5.2.3.1. Integrate media components, develop flow, and test execution
5.2.4. Prototype Evaluation
5.2.4.1. Deliver the prototype to small group of users to test features and user experience
5.2.4.2. Evaluate the prototype by a client, real users, design team, development team (There must be some kind of sign-off)
5.2.4.3. Review outcomes of prototype application and decide what needs improving/changing
5.2.5. Some issues to consider in future
5.2.5.1. How to deliver via web influences overall design?
5.2.5.2. How to deliver via mobile devices influences overall design?
5.2.5.3. What are requirements for design when mashing content?
5.2.5.4. What is the relationship between effective design and learning outcomes?
5.2.6. Develop final product
6. Implementation Stage
6.1. Delivering the final product via appropriate channel
6.2. User training for the final project implemented successfully
6.3. Other required conditions
7. Evaluation Stage
7.1. Formative evaluation
7.1.1. on-going evaluation involved in all stages of the project
7.2. Final/Summative evaluation
7.2.1. collecting some data regarding real users experiences
7.2.2. also involving development team
8. Review of Key LTD Frameworks
8.1. Multimedia Learning Theory (Mayer, 2003)
8.1.1.
8.1.2. Guiding Principles
8.1.2.1. Multimedia principle
8.1.2.2. Split-attention principle
8.1.2.3. Redundancy principle
8.1.2.4. Modality principle
8.1.2.5. Segmenting principle
8.1.2.6. Pre-training principle
8.1.2.7. Coherence
8.1.2.8. Signaling
8.1.3. Same Instructional Design Methods across Different Media
8.1.3.1. Two Formats presenting Instructional Message
8.1.3.1.1. Words (spoken or printed text)
8.1.3.1.2. Pictures (animation or illustrations)
8.1.3.2. Single-Medium Presentation (Verbal-Only Method)
8.1.3.2.1. Positive side
8.1.3.2.1.1. Long history in eduction
8.1.3.2.1.2. Clearly presenting the key information
8.1.3.2.2. Negative side
8.1.3.2.2.1. Inadequate conception of information delivery view
8.1.3.3. Promise of Multimedia Learning
8.1.3.3.1. Definition
8.1.3.3.1.1. To foster deeper learning in students by combining pictures with words
8.1.3.3.2. Deep Learning
8.1.3.3.2.1. Learning that leads to problem-solving transfer
8.1.3.3.3. Research Questions to Fulfill RML
8.1.3.3.3.1. Do students learn more deeply from multimedia messages than from verbal-only ones?
8.1.3.3.3.2. Under what conditions does it help to add pictures to words?
8.1.3.3.3.3. How does multimedia learning work?
8.1.3.3.3.4. Can students engage in active learning when they learn from media that do not allow for much hands-on activity such as multimedia messages?
8.1.3.3.3.5. What is the role of technology in promoting learning?
8.1.3.3.3.6. Do methods work the same way across various media (e.g., book-based or computer-based environments)?
8.1.3.4. A Multimedia Instructional Message
8.1.3.4.1. The presentation contains words and pictures
8.1.3.4.2. The presentation is designed to foster meaningful learning
8.1.3.4.3. Broadly, modalities such as smell or touch; formats such as music or non-speech sound
8.1.3.5. How Multimedia Learning Work
8.1.3.5.1. Selecting
8.1.3.5.1.1. Three Assumptions of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
8.1.3.5.1.1.1. Dual Channel Assumption
8.1.3.5.1.1.2. Limited Capacity Assumption
8.1.3.5.1.1.3. Active Learning Assumption
8.1.3.5.1.2. To select relevant aspects of the sounds, images and incoming images for further processing
8.1.3.5.2. Organizing
8.1.3.5.2.1. To build a coherent mental representation of the verbal material and a coherent mental representation of the visual material
8.1.3.5.3. Integrating
8.1.3.5.3.1. To build connections between the verbal and pictorial models and with prior knowledge
Occurring in an iterative fashion instead of in a rigid linear order
8.1.3.6. Four Instructional Design Methods Across Media
8.1.3.6.1. Multimedia Effect
8.1.3.6.1.1. Presenting words and pictures rather than words alone
8.1.3.6.2. Coherence Effect
8.1.3.6.2.1. Excluding extraneous words and pictures
8.1.3.6.3. Spatial Contiguity Effect
8.1.3.6.3.1. Placing corresponding words and pictures near each other on the page or screen
8.1.3.6.4. Personalization Effect
8.1.3.6.4.1. Expressing the words in a conversational style
8.1.3.7. Why do the instructional methods work across media?
8.1.3.7.1. The Nature of Human Learning
8.1.3.7.1.1. Two Channles
8.1.3.7.1.1.1. Visual
8.1.3.7.1.1.2. Verbal
8.1.3.8. Basic Requirement in Multimedia Learning
8.1.3.8.1. Learners be able to hold corresponding visual and verbal representations in working memory at the same time
8.2. Four-Component ID Model (4C-model)(van Merroenboer, Clark & Croock, 2002)
8.2.1. Learning tasks
8.2.1.1. - concrete, authentic whole-task experiences
8.2.1.2. - organized in simple-to-complex task classes, i.e., categories of equivalent learning tasks
8.2.1.3. - learning tasks within the same task class start with high build-in learner support
8.2.1.4. - learning tasks within the same task class show high variability
8.2.2. Supportive information
8.2.2.1. - supportive to the learning and performance of non-recurrent aspects of learning tasks
8.2.2.2. - consists of mental models, cognitive strategies and cognitive feedback
8.2.2.3. - is specified per task class
8.2.2.4. - is always available to the learners
8.2.3. Just-in-time (JIT) information
8.2.3.1. - prerequisite to the learning and performance of recurrent aspects of learning tasks or practice items
8.2.3.2. - consists of information displays, demonstrations and instances and corrective feedback
8.2.3.3. - is specified per recurrent constituent skills
8.2.3.4. - presented when needed and quickly fades away as learners acquire expertise
8.2.4. Part-task practice
8.2.4.1. - provides additional practice for selected recurrent constituent skill in order to reach required level of automaticity
8.2.4.2. - organized in part-task practice sessions, which are best intermixed with learning tasks
8.2.4.3. - snowballing and REP-sequences might be applied for complex rule sets
8.2.4.4. - practice items are divergent for all situations that underlying rules can deal with
8.3. Learning by Doing/Case-based Reasoning(Schank, Berman & MacPhersoon, 1999)
8.3.1. - learning "by doing" rather than "by being told"
8.3.2. - learning to do, not just to know
8.3.3. - learning in the context of a relevant, meaningful, interesting and authentic task
Other Models of Learning by Doing
Kolb's Learning Cycle
Dufour's 'Learning by Doing'
8.4. Resource-based Learning(Churchill, 2006; Oliver & Herrington , 2001; Hill & Hannafin, 2001)
8.4.1.
8.5. Problem Based Learning:An instructional model and its constructivist framework
8.5.1. Goal
8.5.1.1. To provide a clear link between the theoretical principles of constructivism, the practice of instructional design
8.5.2. Basic Characterization of Constructivism
8.5.2.1. Understanding is in our interactions with the environment
8.5.2.2. Cognitive conflict or puzzlement is the stimulus for learning and determines the organization and nature of what is learned
8.5.2.3. Knowledge evolves through social negotiation and through the evaluation of the viability of individual understandings
8.5.3. Instructional Principles
8.5.3.1. Anchor all learning activities to a larger task or problem
8.5.3.2. Support the learner in developing ownership for the overall problem or task
8.5.3.3. Design an authentic task
8.5.3.4. Design the task and the learning environment to reflect the complexity of the environment they should be able to function in at the end of learning
8.5.3.5. Give the learner ownership of the process used to develop a solution
8.5.3.6. Design the learning environment to support and challenge the learner's thinking
8.5.3.7. Encourage testing ideas against alternative views and alternative contexts
8.5.3.8. Provide opportunity for and support reflection on both the content learned and the learning process
8.5.4. Problem-Based Learning
8.5.4.1. Critical Features of the Process
8.5.4.1.1. Learning Goals
8.5.4.1.1.1. To stimulate, engage the learners
8.5.4.1.2. Problem Generation
8.5.4.1.2.1. The problems must raise the concepts and principles relevant to the content domain.
8.5.4.1.2.2. The problems must be "real".
8.5.4.1.3. Problem Presentation
8.5.4.1.3.1. Students must own the problem in order to engage in authentic problem solving
8.5.4.1.3.2. Be certain that the data presented does not highlight critical factors in the case
8.5.4.1.4. Facilitator Role
8.5.4.1.4.1. Avoid expressing an opinion or giving information to the students
8.5.4.1.4.2. Challenge the learner's thinking
8.6. Jonassen's Constructivist Learning Environment
8.6.1. Problem types
8.6.1.1. - Logical Problems
8.6.1.2. - Algorithms
8.6.1.3. - Story Problems
8.6.1.4. - Rule-Using Problems
8.6.1.5. - Decision-Making Problems
8.6.1.6. - Troubleshooting Problems
8.6.1.7. - Strategic Performance
8.6.1.8. - Situated Case-Policy Problems
8.6.1.9. - Design Problems
8.6.1.10. - Dilemmas
9. Web 2.0 Learning Technologies
9.1. What is Web 2.0?
9.1.1. - A Metaphor for a spectrum of emerging novel Internet application
9.1.2. - A Transformed and more advanced approach to applications of the Internet
9.1.3. - Enable users not only to consume but also to create information and contribute to the sites by publishing content
9.1.4. - "Read-Write" Web
9.1.5. - User control of information
9.1.6. - New forms of expression
9.1.7. - Web as a point of presence
9.1.8. - Internet-mediated social/collective activities
9.1.9. - Web as a platform
9.1.10. - Rich user experiences
9.2. Collection of Web 2.0 sites
9.3. Web 2.0 Applications
9.3.1. Blogs
9.3.1.1. About Blog
9.3.1.1.1. A web-based publication system that allows an ordinary Internet user to create a Web page consisting of periodical articles
9.3.1.1.2. No technical skills required to create a blog
9.3.1.1.3. Contains text, graphics, animations, and other media and provide links to other sites
9.3.1.1.4. Types of blogs
9.3.1.1.4.1. Standard text-based blogs
9.3.1.1.4.2. Linklogs
9.3.1.1.4.2.1. a collection of links maintained by an individual
9.3.1.1.4.3. moblogs
9.3.1.1.4.3.1. blogging with content posted from mobile devices
9.3.1.1.4.4. Vlogs
9.3.1.1.4.4.1. blogs posts as video recordings
9.3.1.1.4.5. Audilogs
9.3.1.1.4.5.1. blog posts as audio recordings
9.3.1.1.5. Blogger
9.3.1.1.5.1. Someone who has a personal blog and provides periodical posts
9.3.1.1.6. Blogsphere is a a community of bloggers
9.3.1.2. Blog Tools
9.3.2. Wikies
9.3.2.1. Web-based publication system supporting an ordinary Internet user to participate in collective publishing activities to produce Internet-based resources
9.3.2.2. Wiki is social software that allows collaborative development of an article of common interest to its authors
9.3.2.3. Best known example: Wikipedia
9.3.2.3.1. - 75,000 active contributors
9.3.2.3.2. - >10,000,000 articles in more than 250 languages
9.3.2.3.3. - >2,300,000 articles in English
9.3.2.3.4. - Hundreds of thousands of visitors daily, tens of thousands of edits and new articles
9.3.2.4. Wiki Tools
9.3.3. Subscribing to Information
9.3.3.1. Users subscribe to an information service and information is delivered to them when it becomes available
9.3.3.2. Possible through a "syndication feed" or "RSS" protocol that allows information to be pushed to subscribers
9.3.3.3. Information in audio and video formats can also be delivered through "podcasting"
9.3.3.4. Latest podcasts can be automatically downloaded to user's system and portable players
9.3.3.5. Users can podcast their own audio and video content to anyone who wants to subscribe to it
9.3.4. RSS Feeds
9.3.4.1. Provide an updated list of content from a site
9.3.4.2. RSS Tools
9.3.5. Podcasting
9.3.5.1. A method of distributing audio programs or video over the Internet for playback on mobile devices and personal computers, using either RSS or Atom syndication formats
9.3.5.2. Podcasting Tools
9.3.6. Social Spaces
9.3.6.1. Where people engage in collective activities
9.3.6.2. Where individuals can create, manage, and publish information and resources that they want others to access
9.3.6.3. Members of such spaces usually identify and connect with other individuals and form sub-communities of interest (or "tribes")
9.3.6.4. Resources sharing and referencing systems are another powerful form of Web 2.0 social spaces
9.3.6.4.1. YouTube
9.3.6.4.1.1. Sharing videos
9.3.6.4.2. del.icio.us
9.3.6.4.2.1. Referencing Web sites
9.3.6.4.3. Flickr
9.3.6.4.3.1. Sharing images
9.3.6.4.4. Napster
9.3.6.4.4.1. Sharing music
9.3.6.4.5. CiteUlike
9.3.6.4.5.1. Referencing academic articles
9.3.6.5. Also allow users to add a resource and to create their own tags or labels descriptive of that resource through the process
9.3.6.6. Allow individuals to add comments, provide recommendations, and assign a number of stars to the resource indicating its value in some way
9.3.6.7. The design of flexible systems that are able to "learn" and improve based on users' activities
9.3.6.7.1. Amazon.com
9.3.7. Social Bookmarking & Social Repositories
9.3.7.1. Allow book marking and sharing resources collaboratively
9.3.7.2. Social Bookmarking Tools
9.3.7.3. Social Repositories Tools
9.3.8. Social Networking
9.3.8.1. Provide online platform for communicating and sharing resources
9.3.8.2. Social Networking Tools
9.3.9. "Web as a platform" Applications
9.3.9.1. Signifies a gradual transformation of the Internet into a platform that contains tools traditionally understood as being native to desktop computer
9.3.9.2. Provide an online platform for communication and collaborative learning
9.3.9.3.
9.3.10. Open Source
9.3.10.1. People are keen to monitor developments of collectively written articles of interest to them and quickly eliminate inaccurate entries
9.3.10.2. Designed for "hackability"
9.3.10.3. "Remixability"
9.3.10.4. Free for everything to download and edit the content
9.3.10.5.
9.3.11. Mashups
9.3.11.1. A Web page or application that uses and combines data, presentation or functionality from two or more sources to create new services
9.3.11.2.
9.4. Wide Spread of Web 2.0
9.4.1. Millions of "digital en citizens" across the world visit Web 2.0 sites
9.4.1.1. Provide their contribution in forms such as multimedia content, blogs comments and tags
9.4.1.2. Develop new partnerships
9.4.1.3. Discover new knowledge from a pool of collective intelligence existing in these environments
9.4.2. More than 25 million hits a day and over 40 million unique video clips uplaoding in YouTube (2006)
9.4.3. Over 90 million members of MySpace (2006)
9.4.4. Over 4.5 million articles in over 100 languages, millions of hits and thousands of edits and new articles per day in Wikipedia (2006)
9.4.5. 75,000 blogs are created every day and over 50,000 updates every hour (2006)
9.5. Education and Web 2.0
9.5.1. In business, companies continuously strive to explore ways to redesign their strategies to meet the demands of emerging paradigms that dominate the understanding and expectations of a dynamic client base
9.5.2. In education, we are somehow stuck with a more rigid culture that often results in our being reluctant or slow in adapting
9.5.3. Applications of Web 2.0 in teaching & learning might promote
9.5.3.1. - new forms of assessment such as digital portfolios
9.5.3.2. - use of Internet-mediated social learning spaces and new forms of collaborative learning
9.5.3.3. - new models and methods for design of learning objects and other kinds of digital curriculum materials
9.5.3.4. - new models for resources sharing and support for technology integration of communities of teachers
9.5.3.5. - new generations of learning managements systems (LMS), or possibly no LMS at all, but rather modular content and services management platforms
9.5.4. Two ongoing studies
9.5.4.1. Use of a blog to support teaching and learning in a graduate university course
9.5.4.2. Social spaces and repositories for teachers
9.5.5. Web 2.0 Ideas
9.5.5.1. - folxonomy/folksonomy
9.5.5.2. - a wiki-like system
9.5.5.3. - syndication feeds
9.5.5.4. - tracking mechanisms along the line
9.5.5.5. - use of podcasting
10. Role of Concepts in Learning & Instructional Design
10.1. What are concepts?
10.1.1. Mental representations of categories of objects, events, or other entities.
10.1.2. Basis for making and communication
10.1.3. Essential roles in human reasoning
10.1.4. Essences of things
10.1.5. Patterns of synaptic connections
10.1.6. Discrete psychological phenomena
10.2. Similarity View of Concepts
10.2.1. Classical-Attribute Isolation View of Concepts
10.2.1.1. Representations of classes of objects, symbols, or events that are grouped together based on common properties or attributes
10.2.1.2. Limitations
10.2.1.2.1. specifying defining properties that exclude all nonmembers while capturing all properties of members is easier said than done.
10.2.1.2.2. goodness of examples effect
10.2.2. Prototype/Probabilistic View of Concepts
10.2.2.1. Concepts are based on properties that are characteristics or typical of category
10.2.2.2. Seeking more typical instances that have more of the characteristics associated with that category
10.2.2.3. Limitation
10.2.2.3.1. Difficulties in explaining combinations of concepts
Both views assume that categorization is driven by similarity among examples of any category
10.2.3. Exemplar View of Concepts
10.2.3.1. People generalize concepts based on their cooccurrence or similarity to each other
10.2.3.2. More conservative about discarding information that facilitates predictions
10.2.3.3. Referring as a Relational View
10.2.3.3.1. Intermediate between classical and actional views
10.2.3.3.2. Concepts contain probabilistic and exemplar components
10.2.3.3.3. Similar to semantic network theory -stress the importance of relational organization of concepts within a network of related concepts
10.3. Problems with Similarity Views of Concepts
10.3.1. Assume...
10.3.1.1. Similarity between instances increases as the number of features or properties they share increases, and decreases as a function of mismatching or nonessential attributes
10.3.1.2. Features that determine similarity are at the same level of abstractness
10.3.1.3. Similarity features are sufficient to describe conceptual structure, so a concept is equivalent to its list of features
10.3.2. Numerous conceptual problems
10.3.3. Inability to account for the varying functions of concepts
10.3.3.1. Functions of concepts
10.3.3.1.1. Classification
10.3.3.1.2. Support inferences for understanding, explaining, and predicting
10.3.3.1.3. Construct new concepts
10.3.3.1.4. Communication
10.3.4. Lack of coherence
10.4. Other Views of Concepts -Result from the limitations of similarity views of concepts
10.4.1. Actional Views of Concepts
10.4.1.1. Concepts are active, constructive and intentional
10.4.1.2. Ways of organizing people's experinces
10.4.2. Theory-based Views of Concepts
10.4.2.1. Concepts are organized by theories
10.4.2.2. Instruction should focus on the attributes plus explicitly represented relations of attributes and concept combinations
10.5. Concepts and Conceptual Change
10.5.1. Humans accommodate concepts only if they are comprehensible and coherent with existing conceptualizations and theories
10.5.2. The cognitive process of adapting and restructuring these theories is conceptual change
10.5.3. Occurring when learners change their understanding of the concepts they use and how they are organized within a conceptual framework
10.5.4. Necessary when information to be understood is inconsistent with personal beliefs and presuppositions
10.5.5. Depending on metacognitive, motivational, and affective processes
10.6. Implications of Conceptual Change for Concept Learning and Assessment
11. References
11.1. Mergel, B (1998). Instructional design & learning theories. http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm
11.2. Mayer, E. R. (2003). The promise of multimedia learning: using the sameinstructional design methods across different media. Learning & Instruction,13, 125-139.
11.3. Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: an instructional model and its constructivist framework. EducationalTechnology, 35(5), 31-38.
11.4. Jonassen, H. D. (2006). On the role of concepts in learning and instructionaldesign. ETR&D, 54(2), 177-196.
11.5. Churchill, D. (2007). Web 2.0 and possibilities for educational applications.Educational Technology, 47(2), 24-29.
11.6. Other online resources please refer to the related links of different items