Essentially, a theory is an abstract, symbolic representation of what is conceived to be reality.

理論在本質上是人們所構想的現實的一種抽象和符號化的表達。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「A theory is an abstract, symbolic representation」。 what引導的一個名詞性子句充當of的受詞。

Thanks to modern irrigation, crops now grow abundantly in areas where once nothing but cacti and sagebrush could live.

受當代灌溉設施之賜，在原來只有仙人掌和灌木蒿才能生存的地方，現在農作物也生長旺盛。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Thanks to modern irrigation, crops now grow abundantly」。句中where引導的定語子句修飾前面的areas。

Anthropologists have discovered that fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise are universally reflected in facial expressions.

人類學家已經發現，恐懼、快樂、悲傷和驚奇會反映在臉部表情上，這在全人類是共通的。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Anthropologists have discovered that ...」。句中that引導一個受詞子句，該受詞子句的主詞是「fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise」。

Of the millions who saw Haley’s Comet in 1986, how many people will live long enough to see it return in the twenty-first century.

1986年看見哈雷慧星的千百萬人當中，有多少人能夠長壽到足以目睹它在21世紀的回歸呢？

文法筆記：本句的主幹是How many people will live long enough to see it return in the twenty-first century。這句看似普通的疑問句，但其實含有感嘆句的功能。

The greater the population there is in a locality, the greater the need there is for water, transportation, and disposal of refuse.

一個地方的人口越多，其對水、交通和垃圾處理的需求就會越大。

文法筆記：這是一個“the more ..., the more”的句型，表示“越…，就越…”，是一個複合句。

Perfectly matched pearls, strung into a necklace, bring a far higher price than the same pearls sold individually.

完美搭配的珍珠串成一條項鍊，能帶來比單顆售賣高很多的價錢。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Perfectly matched pearls bring a far higher price。過去分詞matched表被動，作前置定語修飾pearls；strung into a necklace是過去分詞片語作後置定語；a far higher price than是比較結構，比較的對像是「perfectly matched pearls, strung into a necklace」和the same pearls sold individually。

The development of mechanical timepieces spurred the search for more accurate sundials with which to regulate them.

機械計時器的發展促使人們尋求更精確的日晷，以便校準機械計時器。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The development of mechanical timepieces spurred the search for sundials。句中的which指代sundials。

Studies of the gravity field of the Earth indicate that its crust and mantle yield when unusual weight is placed on them.

對地球重力場的研究表明，當施加不尋常的重力時，地球的地殼和地函會發生變形。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Studies indicate that ...」。 that引導受詞子句，該受詞子句的主幹是its crust and mantle yield。其後的when引導一個狀語子句，作賓語子句的時間狀語。

Quails typically have short rounded wings that enable them to spring into full flight instantly when disturbed in their hiding places.

鵪鶉通常長有短而圓的翅膀，這一特點使它們可以在受到干擾時瞬間展翅起飛，飛離它們的躲藏地。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Quails typically have short rounded wings。句中that引導一個定語子句，修飾wings。此定語子句中又包含一個when引導的時間狀語子句。

Fungi are important in the process of decay, which returns ingredients to the soil, enhances soil fertility, and decomposes animal debris.

真菌在腐化過程中十分重要，腐化過程將各種成分回饋於土壤，提高其肥力，並分解動物殘骸。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Fungi are important。 which引導的定語子句用來修飾the process of decay。該定語子句中有三個並列的謂語：returns、enhances和decomposes。

Most substance contract when they freeze so that the density of a substance’s solid is higher than the density of its liquid.

大多數物質凍結時會收縮，所以它們的密度在固態時高於液態時。

文法筆記：句的主幹是Most substance contract，句中when引導的子句作其時間狀語。 so that引導整個句子的結果狀語子句。

By the middle of the twentieth century, painters and sculptors in the United States had begun to exert a great worldwide influence over art.

到了20世紀中期，在美國的畫家和雕塑家們開始在世界各地對藝術產生重大影響。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Painters and sculptors had begun to exert influence over art。句首的by the middle of the twentieth century是整句的時間狀語。

Although apparently rigid, bones exhibit a degree of elasticity that enables the skeleton to withstand considerable impact.

雖然骨頭看起來堅硬，但它也顯示出一定的彈性，使得骨骼能夠承受較大的衝擊。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Bones exhibit a degree of elasticity。句中的that引導定語子句，修飾前面的elasticity。句首的although apparently rigid作整句的讓步狀語。

Finally, the coughing reflex in reaction to irritants in the airway produces not a cough during sleep but a cessation of breathing.

最後，在處理呼吸道中的刺激物時，咳嗽反射引起的不是睡眠中的咳嗽，而是呼吸停止。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The reflex produces not a cough but a cessation。 「not ... but ...」句型強調的是but後的部分；介詞片語in reaction to irritants in the airway作定語，修飾前面的the coughing reflex，其中reaction to sb./sth.是固定搭配，意為「對某人或某事的反應、回應」。

But when consumers do not know they are being lobbied, they may accept claims they would otherwise be suspicious of.

但當消費者不知自己正被遊說時，他們可能會接受原本會表示懷疑的說法。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是They may accept claims。句中when引導時間狀語子句，其中they are being lobbied是省略that的賓語子句，作動詞know的賓語。句末的they would otherwise be suspicious of是省略that的定語子句，該定語子句修飾claims。

Buyers and sellers should be aware of new developments in technology which can and does affect marketing activities.

購買者和銷售者都應該意識到技術方面的新發展，這些技術能夠且確實影響行銷活動。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Buyers and sellers should be aware of new developments in technology。句中which引導的定語子句修飾technology。

With modern offices becoming more mechanized, designers are attempting to personalize them with warmer, less severe interiors.

隨著現代辦公室變得越來越呆板，設計師們正嘗試利用更溫暖而不過於簡樸的內部裝飾來使辦公室個性化。

文法筆記：本句主幹是Designers are attempting to personalize them。句首是with引導的伴隨狀態。

The worker and soldier castes of termites consist of both males and females, and the queen lives permanently with a male consort.

白蟻中的工蟻和兵蟻的階層由雄性和雌性共同組成，而女王永久地和一個雄性配偶生活在一起。

文法筆記：本句由and連接兩個並列句構成。第一個分句的主幹是the castes consist of both males and females；第二個分句的主幹是the queen lives with a consort。

Children with parents whose guidance is firm, consistent, and rational are inclined to possess high levels of self-confidence.

父母的教導是堅定、一致和理性的，孩子傾向於具有高度的自信。

文法筆記：本句主幹是Children are inclined to possess high levels of self-confidence。 whose引導的定語子句修飾parents。

Lucretia Mott’s influence was so significant that she has been credited by some authorities as the originator of feminism in the United States.

路克瑞莎·馬特的影響力是如此巨大，以至於一些權威部門認定她為美國女權運動的發起人。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Lucretia Mott’s influence was so significant that ...」。 “so ... that ...”表示“如此…以至於…”，that引導的是一個結果狀語從句。

No social crusade aroused Elizabeth Williams’ enthusiasm more than the expansion of educational facilities for immigrants to the United States.

沒有任何一項社會運動比為美國的移民增加教育設施更能激發伊莉莎白威廉斯的熱情。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「No social crusade aroused Elizabeth Williams’ enthusiasm more than the expansion of educational facilities」。

Since wind-pollinated flowers have no need to attract insects or other animals, they have dispensed with bright petals, nectar, and scent.

由於靠風傳播授粉的花不需要吸引昆蟲或其他動物，所以它們不再需要色彩鮮豔的花瓣、花蜜和氣味。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是“They have dispensed with petals, nectar, and scent”，其中dispense with是固定搭配，意為“不再需要”。句首的since引導一個原因狀語子句。

In the absence of a tradition of classical stone-carving and building, the desire to develop Roman amenities would have been difficult to fulfill.

由於缺乏古典的石材雕刻和建築的傳統，開發羅馬風格的便利設施的心願原本是很難實現的。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The desire to develop Roman amenities would have been difficult to fulfill。句首的「in the absence ... building」是介賓片語作狀語。 would have been是虛擬語氣，表示與過去事實相反。

Out in remote areas of the countryside, in rural locations, music was more traditional; the same songs were enjoyed by previous generations.

在遙遠偏僻的鄉村，在農村地區，音樂更傳統；同樣的歌曲，幾代人都在聽。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Music was more traditional; the same songs were enjoyed」。句首「out in remote ... rural locations」是地點狀語。

In the second half of the millennium, in the south around the city of Uruk, there was an enormous escalation in the area occupied by permanent settlements.

在一千年的後半段，在烏魯克城南部，被永久定居點佔用的地域在大幅增加。

文法筆記：句的主幹是There was an escalation。過去分詞片語occupied by permanent settlements作後置定語修飾the area。句首兩個in開頭的片語分別作句子的時間狀語和地點狀語。

By fossils, we mean traces of prehistoric animals such as bones, which become mineralized, or impressions of bones or organs that are left in stone.

提到化石，我們指的是史前生物的遺跡，例如已經礦化的骨頭，或是骨頭或器官在石頭上留下的印記。

語法筆記：本句主幹是「By fossils, we mean traces of prehistoric animals」。句中such as後是由or連接的兩個並列成分，即bones和impressions of bones or organs，這兩個並列成分後面分別帶有一個定語從句。其中bones後面是which引導的非限制性定語子句，impressions of bones or organs後面是that引導的定語子句。

The application of electronic controls made possible by the microprocessor and computer storage have multiplied the uses of the modern typewriter.

借助微處理器和電腦存儲，電子控制裝置的運用成為可能，該運用成倍地增加了現代打字機的功能。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The application of electronic controls have multiplied the uses of the modern typewriter。過去分詞片語made possible by the microprocessor and computer storage作後置定語修飾electronic controls。

Even though the precise qualities of hero in literary words may vary over time, the basic exemplary function of the hero seems to remain constant.

即便文學語言中所描述的英雄所具備的確切品質會隨時代變化，但英雄基本的典範作用似乎是保持不變的。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The function of the hero seems to remain constant。句中even though引導讓步子句。

When Henry Ford first sought financial backing for making cars, the very notion of farmers and clerks owning automobiles was considered ridiculous.

當亨利·福特最初為製造汽車尋求資金支持時，人們覺得「農民和一般職員都能擁有汽車」這種想法太可笑了。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The notion was considered ridiculous。句中when引導時間狀語子句；現在分詞片語owning automobiles作後置定語修飾farmers and clerks。

Many people who wanted to become archaeologists ended up pursuing other careers and contributing to archaeological research only as unpaid amateurs.

很多想要成為考古學家的人最後都從事了其它的職業，只作為無償的業餘愛好者對考古研究做出貢獻。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Many people ended up pursuing other careers and contributing to archaeological research。句中who引導定語子句who wanted to become archaeologists修飾people；and連接兩個並列的非謂語動詞形式pursuing和contributing。

Even before the discovery of germs, beliefs that disease spread by “miasmas” （noxious forms of bad air） prompted attention to sewers and open garbage.

甚至在發現細菌以前，疾病透過「瘴氣」（有毒的惡性氣體）傳播的觀點就已激起人們對排水溝和露天垃圾的關注。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Beliefs prompted attention。句首的介詞片語even before the discovery of germs作時間狀語，beliefs後的that引導同位語子句解釋說明beliefs。

Since the consumer considers the best fruit to be that which is the most attractive, the grower must provide products that satisfy the discerning eye.

因為顧客認為最好的水果應該是看起來最吸引人的，所以種植者必須提供能滿足顧客挑剔眼光的產品。

文法筆記：本句主幹是The grower must provide products。句首是since引導的原因狀語子句，這個子句的主幹是The consumer considers the best fruit to be that，其中that是代名詞，指稱fruit，後面的which is the most attractive是定語子句，修飾前面的代名詞that ，顯示水果應該是什麼樣的。句子主幹中的that satisfy the discerning eye是定語子句，修飾products。

With no oceans to dissolve it, outgassed carbon dioxide began to accumulate in the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect even more.

沒有海洋溶解二氧化碳，排出的二氧化碳開始在大氣中聚集，進一步加劇了溫室效應。

文法筆記：本句主幹是Carbon dioxide began to accumulate in the atmosphere。句首是with引導的獨立主格結構。句尾的intensifying the greenhouse effect even more是現在分詞片語作結果狀語。

Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrich space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible.

建築物為人類生活貢獻良多，它們提供遮蔽處，豐富活動空間，完善人們的居所，使人們適應氣候，同時在經濟上使人覺得可承受。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是“Buildings contribute to life when they ...”，在when引導的狀語子句中，含有provide、enrich、complement、suit、are這五個謂語動詞。

Research into the dynamics of storms is directed toward improving the ability to predict these events and thus to minimize damage and avoid loss of life

對風暴動力學的研究旨在提高對這類風暴事件預測的能力，從而減少損失，避免人員傷亡。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Research is directed toward improving the ability。 ability之後的不定詞「to predict ... and thus to minimize ... and avoid ...」作ability的後置定語。

Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke and blowhole cannot disguise their affinities with land dwelling mammals

它們呈流線型的身體，後腿的消失，尾片和氣孔的出現，這些特徵都不能掩飾它們和陸生哺乳動物的相似之處。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Their bodies, the absence of ..., and the presence of ... cannot disguise their affinities with ...」。句子的主詞較長，由三個名詞片語構成。

Scientists do not know why dinosaurs became extinct, but some theories postulate that changes in geography, climate, and sea levels were responsible.

科學家們不知道恐龍為何滅絕了，但有些理論推論這是地理、氣候和海平面的變化所造成的。

文法筆記：本句中but連接了兩個並列的分句。第一個分句含有一個why引導的受詞子句，第一個分句的主幹是「scientists do not know why ...」；第二個分句含有一個that引導的受詞子句，第二個分句的主幹是「theories postulate that ...」。

The elimination of inflation would ensure that the amount of money used in repaying a loan would have the same value as the amount of money borrowed.

消除通貨膨脹，可確保用來償還貸款的錢與借貸的錢價值相等。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是“The elimination of inflation would ensure that ...”，其中that引導一個賓語子句。

Futurism, an early twentieth-century movement in art, rejected all tr​​aditions and attempted to glorify contemporary life by emphasizing the machine and motion.

未來主義是20世紀早期的一股藝術思潮，它拋棄一切傳統，試圖透過強調機械和運動來美化當代生活。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Futurism rejected all tr​​aditions and attempted to glorify contemporary life。句中的an early twentieth-century movement in art是插入語，補充說明futurism。

Acids are chemical compounds that, in water solution, have a sharp taste, a corrosive action on metals, and the ability to turn certain blue vegetable dyes red.

酸是一種化合物，在溶於水時，它具有強烈的氣味，對金屬有腐蝕作用，並且能夠使某些藍色植物染料變紅。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Acids are chemical compounds。其後的that引導一個定語子句修飾compounds。

In other instances, such as the Indus River Valley, the cities lacked a royal precinct and the ostentatious palaces that marked their contemporaries elsewhere.

但其他情況下，例如在印度河流域，城市就沒有像同時期其他地方那樣標誌性的皇家區域和豪華招搖的宮殿。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The cities lacked a precinct and the palaces。句中that引導的定語子句修飾the ostentatious palaces。

Offshore drilling platforms extend the search for oil to the ocean’s continental shelves—those gently sloping submarine regions at the edges of the continents.

近海鑽探平台將尋找石油的區域延伸到了海洋大陸架上——陸地附近淺海下緩緩的斜坡。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Platforms extend the search to the continental shelves。破折號後面的名詞片語「those gently sloping ... continents」對the ocean’s continental shelves有解釋說明的作用。

Even those artists who were most dependent on photography became reluctant to admit that they made use of it, in case this compromised their professional standing.

即使是那些對攝影術最依賴的藝術家們也變得不願意承認他們使用過攝影術，以防這會影響到他們的專業地位。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是“Those artists became reluctant to ...”，其中who引導一個定語子句修飾artists。 admit後的that引導一個受詞子句。 in case引導的目的狀語子句作整個句子的狀語。

According to anthropologists, the earliest ancestors of humans that stood upright resembled chimpanzees facially, with sloping foreheads and protruding brows.

根據人類學家的說法，直立行走的最早的人類祖先的面部輪廓與黑猩猩相似，前額傾斜，眉毛突出。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The ancestors resembled chimpanzees。定語子句that stood upright修飾humans；介詞片語with sloping foreheads and protruding brows中，現在分詞sloping和protruding作前定語分別修飾foreheads和brows，整個介詞片語在子句中作伴隨狀語。

Anarchism is a term describing a cluster of doctrines and attitudes whose principal uniting feature is the belief that government is both harmful and unnecessary.

無政府主義這個詞描述的是一組理論和態度，它們的主要共同特徵在於相信政府是有害且沒有必要的。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Anarchism is a term。現在分詞片語「describing a cluster ... unnecessary」作後置定語修飾a term，其中whose引導一個定語子句修飾a cluster of doctrines and attitudes。此定語子句中又包含一個that引導的同位語子句解釋說明the belief。

A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton.

與蒸汽機相連的旋轉式發動機帶動軸承轉動，從而驅動機器，結果是運用蒸汽動力紡織棉布的工廠隨之出現。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是A rotary engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven。句中attached to the steam engine是過去分詞片語作後置定語修飾a rotary engine。句子的後半部resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton是現在分詞片語在句尾作結果狀語，其中還包含一個現在分詞片語using steam power to spin and weave cotton作後置定語修飾mills。

Self-awareness, even in its earliest stages, might entail an awareness of others, the ability to see their perspective and to look at the world from another’s point of view.

自我意識，即使在最初的階段，也可能涉及對其他人的感知，即理解他人觀點和能從他人的角度看世界的能力。

文法筆記：本句主幹是self-awareness might entail an awareness of others。名詞片語「the ability to see ... point of view」作同位語，解釋說明前面的awareness of others；其中and連接並列的不定式to see their perspective和to look at the world from another’s point of view。

Various committees acted as an executive branch, implementing policies of the assembly and supervising, for instance, the food and water supplies and public buildings.

各委員會作為一個行政部門貫徹執行議會政策，並對諸如食品、水供應以及公共建築進行監督管理。

文法筆記：本句主幹是Various committees acted as an executive branch。後面的implementing policies of the assembly and supervising the food and water supplies and public buildings是由and連接的兩個並列的現在分詞短語，在句中作伴隨狀語，表示和謂語acted as an executive branch同時發生。

A mountain range may emerge and gradually split a population of organisms that can inhabit only lowland lakes; certain fish populations might become isolated in this way.

一條山脈可能會出現，並逐漸隔絕一個僅在低地湖泊棲息的生物種群，某些魚群可能會以這種方式被隔離。

文法筆記：本句是由分號連接的兩個並列分句。第一個分句的主幹是A mountain range may emerge and split a population，定語子句that can inhabit only lowland lakes修飾organisms；第二個分句的主幹是Populations might become isolated。

Think of it this way, humans originally needed to have a stronger sensitivity to bitter-tasting foods so they could learn what plants were good for them and which ones might be poisonous.

這樣想想看，人類最初需要對苦味的食物更加敏感，這樣他們才能知道哪些植物是對他們有益的，哪些植物可能是有毒的。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Humans needed to have a sensitivity。 sensitivity與後面的介詞to是固定搭配；so作連接詞引導目的狀語子句。 what plants were good for them和which ones might be poisonous透過and並列，一起作動詞learn的受詞。

Because eastern plows could not penetrate the densely tangled roots of prairie grass, the earliest settlers erected farms along the boundary separating the forest from the prairie.

由於東方的犁無法穿透大草原那濃密纏結的草的根部，早期移民沿著森林和草原的分界建立了農場。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The settlers erected farms。句首的because引導原因狀語子句。現在分詞片語separating the forest from the prairie作後置定語修飾the boundary。

If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun’s rate of movement across the sky.

如果人造太陽保持靜止，這些鳥類會以每小時15度的速度改變它們相對於太陽的方向，而這一速度正好是太陽橫跨天空的運行速度。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The birds would shift direction。句子開頭是if引導的條件狀語子句，句子結尾處的名詞片語the Sun’s rate of movement across the sky是同位語，解釋說明前面的15 degrees per hour。

The Industrial Revolution had several roots, one of which was a commercial revolution that, beginning as far back as the sixteenth century, accompanied Europe’s expansion overseas.

工業革命有幾個根源，其中之一就是商業革命，商業革命開始的時間可追溯到16世紀，伴隨著歐洲在海外的擴張。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The Industrial Revolution had roots。 which引導的非限制性定語子句修飾roots，其中又嵌入了一個that引導的定語子句修飾commercial revolution。現在分詞片語beginning as far back as the sixteenth century在that引導的定語子句中作伴隨狀語。

The jaw joints of many advanced herbivores, such as cows, lie at a different level than the tooth row, allowing transverse tearing, shredding, and compression of plant material.

許多高級食草動物——例如牛——的顎關節和牙排位於不同的水平面上，這樣可以橫向撕裂、切碎、壓縮植物材料。

文法筆記：本句主幹是The jaw joints lie at a different level than the tooth row。 「allowing ... plant material」是非謂語結構作伴隨狀語，其中tearing、shredding和compression作allowing的並列賓語。

So musical instruments evolved in ways that optimize their acoustical properties—how the instrument vibrates and sends those vibration through the air to our eardrums.

因此樂器的演變方式就是優化它們的聲學特性，即樂器如何振動，以及如何將所產生的振動透過空氣傳遞到我們的耳膜。

文法筆記：本句主幹是「Musical instruments evolved in ways that ...」。句中that引導的定語子句修飾ways，how引導的同位語子句解釋說明acoustical properties。

German printers had the disadvantage of working with the complex typeface that the Italians sneeringly referred to as “Gothic” and that later became known as black letter.

德國印表機的缺點是使用一種複雜的字體，義大利人嘲諷地稱之為「哥德式」字體，後來這種字體被稱為黑體字。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Printers had the disadvantage of ...」。其後有兩個that引導的定語子句“that the Italians sneeringly referred to as ...”和“that later became known as ...”，兩者都用來修飾the complex typeface。

Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman medical doctor in the United States, founded the New York Infirmary, an institution that has always had a completely female medical staff.

美國第一位女醫生伊莉莎白·布萊克威爾創立了紐約診所，該機構的醫護人員一直都是女性。

文法筆記：本句主幹是Elizabeth Blackwell founded the New York Infirmary。其中the first woman medical doctor in the United States是Elizabeth Blackwell的同位語；“an institution that ... medical staff”是the New York Infirmary的同位語，這個同位語結構中還有一個that引導的定語從句修飾引導an institution。

We’ve gone over where coral reefs are usually formed—along the edges of shallow ocean banks in tropical or subtropical regions, and the fact that they are declining at an alarming rate.

我們已經講過珊瑚礁通常在哪裡形成——沿著熱帶或亞熱帶地區淺海沿岸的邊緣地帶——以及珊瑚礁正在以讓人擔憂的速度消失這一事實。

文法筆記：本句主幹是「We’ve gone over where ... and the fact that ...」。句中的where coral reefs are usually formed和「the fact that ...」是並列成分，一起作主句的賓語，其中where引導賓語從句，that引導the fact的同位語從句。破折號後面的along the edges of shallow ocean banks in tropical or subtropical regions是解釋說明前面提到的where coral reefs are usually formed。

Raised beaches often consist of areas of sand, pebbles, or dunes, sometimes containing seashells or piles of debris comprising shells and bones of marine animals used by humans.

上升海灘通常由沙洲、鵝卵石或沙丘組成，有時包含貝殼或由人類用過的海洋動物的殼和骨頭構成的一堆殘渣。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Raised beaches often consist of areas of sand, pebbles, or dunes」。 containing是現在分詞，引導伴隨狀語，表示與謂語動詞consist of同時進行。現在分詞片語「comprising shells ... by humans」作後置定語，修飾piles of debris。

But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to timee region to region and that no rock type was ever going to time sregion re

由於在越來越多的地方，越來越多的岩層累積形式被編入分類，以下資訊變得清晰了：岩層順序有時因地區的不同而不同，全世界沒有一種特定的岩層能被認作是可靠的時間標誌。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「It became clear that ... and that ...」。其中兩個that分別引導一個主詞子句，作本句真正的主詞：that the sequences differed from region to region and that no rock type was going to become a time marker throughout the world。句首的as引導一個原因狀語子句。

This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply made it an effective and efficient means of transportation.

這是一項重要革新，因為駱駝能在惡劣的沙漠環境繁衍生息，並以低廉的成本運輸大量的貨物，這使它成為一種有效且高效的運輸方式。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是This was an innovation。其後是由because引導的原因狀語子句，子句的主幹是The camel’s abilities made it a means of transportation。 ability to do sth.是固定搭配，表示做某事的能力。

These people exploited the landscape intensively, foraging on hill slopes for wild cereal grasses and nuts, while hunting gazelle and other game on grassy lowlands and in river valleys.

這些人對該地區進行了高強度的開發，他們在山坡上搜尋野生的穀物和堅果，在長滿青草的低地和河谷中捕捉瞪羚及其他獵物。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是People exploited the landscape。 while連接兩個並列的現在分詞片語“foraging ... nuts”和“hunting ... valleys”，這兩個現在分詞片語作狀語，表示伴隨狀態。

The recognition that many aspects of the modern flora and fauna were present on both sides of the Bering Sea as remnants of the ice-age landscape led to this region being named Beringia.

人們認識到，作為冰河時期地形的遺跡，現代植物群和動物群的許多特徵過去在白令海兩岸也存在。這一認識使得該地區被命名為白令吉亞。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是The recognition led to this region being named Beringia。同位語子句「that many aspects ... landscape」用來解釋說明the recognition，子句中的as作介詞，後面接著一個名詞片語。

Thus, the recalling of an event （a hunt, battle, or other feat） is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person.

因此，在回憶一個事件時（一次打獵、戰役或是其它功勳偉業），講述人是透過自己的手勢和模仿將其詳盡呈現出來，這種呈現方式最終演變成為由不同的人來演繹不同的角色。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Thus, the recalling is elaborated through ... and through ...」。 each role being assumed by a different person是動名詞的複合結構。

The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process.

沙漠化問題異常嚴重，這是因為有很廣闊的地區和數量龐大的人群都受到了沙漠化的影響，而且要想逆轉沙漠化的進程，哪怕只是減緩沙漠化的速度，都面臨著巨大的困難。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「The seriousness results from ... and ..., as well as from ... or ...」。 results from後面並列了四個名詞片語，分別是the vast areas of land、the tremendous numbers of people affected、the great difficulty of reversing以及slowing the process，其中slowing the process前面省略了the great difficulty of。

Before starting on a sea voyage, prudent navigators learn the sea charts, study the sailing directions, and memorize lighthouse locations to prepare themselves for any conditions they might encounter.

謹慎的航海員在出航前，會學習海圖，研究航向，並熟記燈塔的位置，以便對各種他們可能遇到的情況做到有備無患。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Navigators learn the charts, study the directions, and memorize locations」。句首的before後面接的是動名詞形式。句末的「to prepare ... encounter」是目的狀語，其中包含的定語從句they might encounter修飾conditions，該定語從句的關係代名詞that在從句中省略。

The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities.

數十年來,為什麼會發生嬰兒期遺忘這個問題一直讓心理學家們感興趣，尤其是鑑於大量的證據表明嬰幼兒能夠表現出令人驚訝的記憶能力。

文法筆記

本句的主幹是The question has intrigued psychologists。句中的that引導同位語子句“that infants ... capabilities”，用於解釋說明evidence。

Researchers can drill core samples, uh, basically get a cross-section of a tree without having to kill it, look at the rings and get a picture of what the climate was like in the basin for each of the tree’s years.

研究人員可以鑽取芯部樣本，基本上獲取一棵樹的橫截面而不導致樹的死亡，然後觀察年輪，了解這棵樹所在盆地每年的氣候狀況。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Researchers can drill samples, get a cross-section, look at the rings and get a picture」。主句的四個謂語動詞分別為drill、get、look at和get，透過逗號和and並列連接。

Great Britain’s better-developed banking and credit system also helped speed the industrial progress, as did the fact that it was the home of an impressive array of entrepreneurs and inventors.

英國較成熟的銀行和信貸體係也有助於加快工業進步，就像英國有一大批令人讚嘆的企業家和發明家這一事實有助於工業進步一樣。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Banking and credit system also helped speed the progress。句中as引導一個狀語從句，表示“像…一樣”，該從句倒裝；其中又包含一個由that引導的同位語從句，用於解釋說明the fact。

Confronted with a multitude of unreliable figures, economists have compared the population records with the aggregate data for cultivated land area and grain production in the six centuries since 1368.

面對大量不可靠的數字，經濟學家將人口記錄與1368年以來六個世紀的耕地面積和糧食產量的匯總數據進行了比較。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是economists have compared the records with the data。句首是過去分詞形式的非謂語結構，表示被動，邏輯主詞是economists。

Apparently, species-rich plots were likely to contain some drought-resistant plant species that grew better in drought years, compensating for the poor growth of less-tolerant species.

顯然，物種豐富的地塊很可能包含一些抗旱植物品種，這些抗旱品種在乾旱的年份生長得更好，彌補了那些不耐旱品種生長不佳的狀況。

文法筆記：本句主幹是Species-rich plots were likely to contain some drought-resistant plant species。 that引導的定語子句修飾some drought-resistant plant species。句中「compensating for ...」是非謂語結構，在定語子句中作伴隨狀語。

Even more shocking is the fact that the number and rate of imprisonment have more than doubled over the past twenty years, and recidivism—that is the rate for re-arrest—is more than 60 percent.

更令人吃驚的事實是，監禁的數目和比率在過去20年裡翻了一番還有餘，而累犯率，即再次逮捕的比率，高於60%。

文法筆記：本句主幹是Even more shocking is the fact。這個句子的表語even more shocking置於句首，在be動詞之前，整句話是倒裝句。在「the fact that ... more than 60 percent」中，第一個that引導同位語子句，解釋說明the fact，同位語從句由and連接兩個簡單句，分別是「the number and rate ... over the past twenty years」和「recidivism ... more than 60 percent」。

These plants propagate by producing spores—tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant—but the spores are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of tritrient.

這些植物透過產生孢子來繁殖——孢子是一些微小的已受精細胞，它們攜帶了生成一株新植物的所有指令資訊——但是孢子沒有任何外部表皮的保護，也沒有營養供應。

文法筆記：這是一個含有but的並列複合句。第一個分句的主幹是「These plants propagate by ...」；第二個分句的主幹是「The spores are unprotected by ... and carry no supply ...」。定語子句that contain all the instructions for making a new plant修飾tiny fertilized cells。同位語tiny fertilized cells指的是前面的spores。

Meanwhile, the deadliest strains of the virus perished with their hosts as natural selection favored strains that could infect hosts but not kill them. Thus, natural selection stabilized this host-parasite relation.

同時，由於自然選擇更傾向於那些能夠感染寄主但不致其死亡的品系，這種病毒中最致命的品係也隨寄主滅亡了。因此，自然選擇使得寄主和寄生物的關係趨於穩定。

文法筆記：第一個句子的主幹是The strains perished。 as引導原因狀語子句“as natural selection favored ... not kill them”，其中又包含一個由that引導的定語從句，修飾前面的名詞strains。第二句的主幹是Natural selection stabilized relationship。

The residence time is the average length of time that any particular molecule of water remains in the lake, and it is calculated by dividing the volume of water in the lake by the rate at which water leaves the lake.

停留時間指的是特定水分子在湖中停留的平均長度。這是透過將湖水量除以水流出湖泊的速度計算出來的。

文法筆記：這是一個由and連接的並列複合句。第一個分句的主幹是The residence time is the average length of time，其後由that引導一個定語子句。第二個分句的主幹是“It is calculated by ...”，其中定語從句at which water leaves the lake修飾前面的名詞the rate。

An eye is a collection of cells that are specialized for light detection through the presence of photosensitive pigment as well as a means of restricting the direction of incoming light that will strike the photosensitive cells.

眼睛由專門探測光源的細胞聚合而成，這些細胞透過使用光敏色素來探測光源，同時眼睛也用於限制射到感光細胞的入射光的方向。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是“An eye is a collection of cells ... as well as a means ...”，as well as連接並列成分a collection of cells和a means。第一個that引導的定語子句「that are specialized ... pigment」修飾cells；第二個that引導的定語子句that will strike the photosensitive cells修飾incoming light。

Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society’s cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social sooo sooooliity fordars sooo critical fordar sotical critical sooo

社會學家將初級群體視為個體與更大的社會群體之間的橋樑，因為它們能傳達、調解和解讀一個社會的文化模式，並提供對社會團結至關重要的和諧感。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Sociologists view primary groups as bridges。 because引導一個原因狀語子句，該子句的主詞是they，子句透過and連接了兩個並列的謂語，分別是「transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns」和「provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity」。

Importing the grain, which would have been expensive and time consuming for the Dutch to have produced themselves, kept the price of grain low and thus stimulated individual demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods.

荷蘭人自己生產糧食既昂貴又耗時，進口糧食使得糧食的價格維持在低水平，因而刺激了個人對其他食物和生活消費品的需求。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Importing the grain kept the price low and thus stimulated demand。 which引導一個非限定性定語子句，修飾前面的名詞the grain。定語子句中would have been expensive and time consuming用的是虛擬語氣，表示與過去事實相反。

While the men who make faithful copies of sand paintings from the past represent the principle of stability in Navajo thought, women embody dynamism and create new designs for every weaving they make.

如實複製了過去的沙畫的男人們代表著納瓦霍人思想中的穩定性原則，而女性則代表著活力，每次編織她們都創造了新的設計。

文法筆記：本句while作並列連接詞，連接了兩個完整的句子，表示兩者間的對比。第一個分句的主幹是The men represent the principle of stability；who引導定語子句修飾the men。第二個分句的主幹是Women embody dynamism and create designs；省略了關係代名詞that的定語子句they make修飾weaving。

在 turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders, fostered the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, pietas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iusiustitia, a sense the family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natense order.

反過來，對土地以及鄉村生活所帶來的穩定性的深深依戀孕育了羅馬人的品格：gravitas，一種責任感；pietas，對家庭和國家的奉獻；以及iustitia，一種自然的秩序感。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「A deep attachment fostered the virtues: gravitas, pietas, and iustitia」。 attachment to是固定搭配，意為“對…的依戀”，本句中attachment to後用and並列連接the land和the stability。定語子句which rural life engenders修飾前面的stability。冒號後面有三個並列的名詞：gravitas，pietas和iustitia，每個名詞後面都用一個名詞短語作為同位語來解釋說明該名詞的含義。

In contrast to mammals and birds, amphibians are unable to produce thermal energy through their metabolic activity, which would allow them to regulate their body temperature independent of the surrounding or regulate their body temperature independent of the surrounding or ambient temperature.

與哺乳動物和鳥類相反，兩棲類動物不能透過它們的代謝活動產生熱能，這使得它們可以脫離周圍的環境溫度來調節體溫。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Amphibians are unable to produce thermal energy。定語子句「which would allow ... ambient temperature」修飾前面的句子，定語子句中的independent of the surrounding or ambient temperature是形容詞片語，說明謂語動詞regulate發生的方式。

This is because the gaps among the original grains are often not totally plugged with cementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either conking place wardis where sward ward ward wards wards .

這是因為最初顆粒間的縫隙通常並未完全被黏固的化學物質塞滿，而且部分顆粒很可能在固化時或固化後被滲入的地下水溶解。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「This is because ...」。 because引導的表語子句才是本句的主要內容，其主幹是「 the gaps are not plugged with chemicals; also, parts of ... may become dissolved by groundwater, either ... or ...」。

The growth of mutual trust among merchants facilitated the growth of sales on credit and led to new developments in finance, such as the bill of exchange, a device that made the long, slow, and very dangerous ecary.

商家之間的相互信任成長促進了信貸銷售的成長，促使了金融的新發展，例如匯票，匯票這種手段使又長、又慢、又非常危險的硬幣運輸變得不必要了。

文法筆記：本句主幹是The growth of mutual trust facilitated the growth of sales on credit and led to new developments in finance。名詞片語「a device that ... shipment of coins unnecessary」作the bill of exchange的同位語，起解釋說明作用，其中a device後面是that引導的定語子句。

Widely reported, if somewhat distrusted, accounts by figures like the famous traveler from Venice, Marco Polo, of the willingness of people in China to trade with Europeans and of the immensity of the wealth to be ired by sbe ired theal by be iridealth to be ired by sbe ired by sbe

據廣泛報道，雖然可能不足為信，諸如威尼斯著名旅行家馬可·波羅在內的名人曾描述過，中國人願意和歐洲人通商，並且歐洲通過這樣的貿易關係可以獲得巨額財富，這些描述使得這個想法（編註：即在歐洲與東方之間建立直接的貿易往來）變得難以抗拒。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Accounts made the idea irresistible。句首的過去分詞片語widely reported作伴隨狀語，和主句主詞accounts在邏輯上構成被動關係。 if somewhat distrusted是插入語，其主詞即主句主詞accounts。短語accounts by sb. of sth.是一種固定搭配，意為「某人所做的關於某事的描述」。句中and連接了兩個並列的內容：「of the willingness of ... Europeans」和「of the immensity of ... contact」。

In the wake of the Roman Empire’s conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the localec.

在公元1世紀羅馬帝國征服英國之後，大量軍隊駐守在這片新省區，這些軍隊的軍營、城防以及他們對當地經濟的參與都對英國產生了重要的影響。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「troops stayed in the province, and troops had a（n） impact on Britain」。句中的in the wake of sb./sth.是固定搭配，意為「隨…之後而來；跟隨在…之後」；介詞片語「with their camps ... economy」作狀語。

While many programs designed for preschoolers focus primarily on social and emotional factors, some are geared mainly toward promoting cognitive gains and preparing preschoolers for the formal instruction they will experience when they

許多為學齡前兒童設計的項目主要集中在社會因素和情感因素上，而有些主要是為提升學齡前兒童的認知收穫，為他們上幼兒園後要經歷的正規教學做準備。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Some are geared toward promoting gains and preparing preschoolers。 while引導狀語子句，其主幹是programs focus on factors，過去分詞片語designed for preschoolers修飾名詞programs。定語子句「they will experience ... kindergarten」修飾the formal instruction，引導定語子句的關係代名詞在子句中作賓語，因此被省略；定語子句中又含有一個when引導的時間狀語子句when they start kindergarten。

英雄 compiled descriptions and sketches of 70 some clever little, mechanical devices, most of which utilized compressed air to cause water, or in some cases, wine to flow from one place to another, or sometimes to squiths, wine to flow from one place to another, or sometimes to squit or some。

希羅編纂了約70種靈巧的小型機械設備的說明和草圖，其中大部分設備利用壓縮的空氣來使水——或者在某些情況下使酒——從一處流向另一處，或者有時候噴射或製造一些響聲。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Hero compiled descriptions and sketches。 which引導的非限定性定語子句修飾前面的名詞片語「70 some clever little, mechanical devices」。定語子句的主幹是most of which utilized compressed air，其中過去分詞compressed表被動，作前置定語修飾air；cause sth. to do sth.是固定搭配，意為“使某物做某事”，句中的water和wine透過or並列，to flow、to squirt和to make也是透過or並列。

Introducing genetically modified trees, designed for fast growth and high yield in given geographic conditions, would satisfy the demand for wood in many of those areas and save the endangered native trees, whichare include .

引入那些在特定的地理條件下生長快、產量高的基因改造樹木會滿足許多這樣的地區對木材的需求，保護當地瀕臨滅絕的樹木，其中常常包括一些獨有或稀有的品種。

文法筆記：本句主幹是Introducing genetically modified trees would satisfy the demand for wood and save the endangered native trees。句首的introducing genetically modified trees是動名詞，作主語，其中過去分詞modified作前置定語修飾trees；過去分詞短語designed for fast growth and high yield in given geographic conditions做非限制性定語，修飾genetically modified trees。句尾which 引導的非限制性定語子句修飾前面的the endangered native trees。

In the 1760s, James Watt perfected a separate condenser for the steam, so that the cylinder did not have to be cooled at every stroke; then he devised a way to make the piston turn a wheel and thus convert reprocating） into rotary motion.

18世紀60年代，詹姆斯·瓦特完善了分離的蒸汽冷凝器，因此不必每一衝程後都要冷卻氣缸；隨後，他又發明了一種新的方法，使得活塞可以旋轉運動，即從原來的（前後）往復運動演變變成旋轉運動。

文法筆記：本句包含兩個並列的分句，由分號連接。第一個分句的主幹是James Watt perfected a condenser；so that引導的結果狀語子句的主幹是the cylinder did not have to be cooled。第二個分句的主幹是“He devised a way and convert ... into ...”，其中a way to do sth.是固定搭配，意為“做某事的方式”，convert sth. into sth 。也是固定搭配，意為“將…轉變為…”，reciprocating作為現在分詞修飾後面的名詞motion。

Unlike short-term financial cooperation between investors for a single commercial undertaking, joint-stock companies provided permanent funding of capital by drawing on the investments of merchants and other invests who purchasany sha.

與由投資者組成的以單一商業項目為目的的短期財團不同，股份制公司透過利用商人和其他購買公司股份的投資者的投資來提供長期的資金。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Joint-stock companies provided permanent funding of capital。其後的「by drawing on ... in the company」為方式狀語，其中含有一個who引導的定語從句修飾investors。句首的「unlike short-term ... undertaking」作整句的比較狀語。

This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of know in the scient.

這是合理的，因為人們認為反思實踐可以幫助老師們更理性地參與到他們的角色和所從事的教學工作中，使他們能夠應對教學準則中科學事實的缺乏及知識的不確定性。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是this was justified by the view。子句「that practice could help ... in the discipline of teaching」作為同位語子句解釋說明view。同位語子句的主詞是reflective practice，謂語動詞是could help和enable；其中feel more intellectually involved in their role中過去分詞形式的形容詞involved作feel的表語；cope with後面由並並列連接the paucity of scient fificact和the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching。

There were no other large public buildings, suggesting that the priests who were in charge of the temples also were responsible for governing the city and organizing people to work in the fields and on irrigation projects buil

沒有其他大型的公共建築，這意味著主管寺廟的祭司也負責管理城市，組織人們在田間勞動、興修水利工程，並維護溝渠和水壩系統。

文法筆記：本句主幹是There were no other large public buildings。句中「suggesting that ... ditches and dams」作伴隨狀語；suggesting後面是that引導的賓語子句，該賓語子句的主幹是「The priests were responsible for governing ... and organizing ... and maintaining .. .」；定語子句who were in charge of the temples修飾the priests；in the fields和on irrigation projects building是由and連接的並列結構，一起作work的狀語。

Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to thatrate the stable, herited the item.

財富和地位上的不平等確實存在，而且可能存在於絕大多數遊牧社會。但除了軍事征服時期，這種不平等通常太過輕微，難以形成那種常用「階級」這個詞來暗指的穩定、世襲的等級制度。

文法筆記：本句中but連接了兩句話。第一個句子的主詞是inequalities of wealth and rank，句中有兩個並列謂語，即exist和have probably existed。第二句的主幹是they are too slight to generate hierarchies，其中they指涉inequalities of wealth and rank，定語子句that are usually implied by the use of the term class修飾前面的hierarchies。

Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment; an environment that varies from place to place supports more 回 orgsvironment that varies from place to place supports morex more sm.

現在許多生態學家認為，頂極群落相對長期的穩定性並非來自於多樣性，而是來自環境的“補綴”，隨處變化的環境比始終如一的環境更有利於多種有機體的生存。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「Ecologists think that ...」。 that引導的受詞子句中包含兩個分句：第一個分句的主幹是「The stability comes not from ... but from ...」；第二個分句的主幹是「An environment supports more kinds …… than an environment ...”，第二個分句中的兩個environment後都帶有一個that引導的定語從句，分別是that varies from place to place和that is uniform。

According to conventional theory, yawning takes place when people are bored or sleepy and serves the function of increasing alertness by reversing, through deeper breathing, the drop in blood oxygen levels that area s

根據傳統理論，當人們無聊或困倦時就會打哈欠，伴隨睡眠不足或無聊而來的淺呼吸會降低血液中氧的含量，打哈欠可以透過深呼吸逆轉血液中氧含量的下降，從而達到提高警覺性的作用。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Yawning takes place and serves the function。句中的when people are bored or sleepy是時間狀語從句；“by doing”是固定搭配，意為“通過做…”，作方式狀語。定語子句that are caused by the shallow breathing和that accompanies lack of sleep or boredom分別修飾the drop in blood oxygen levels和the shallow breathing。

Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the Pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expedition this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization and food coloni​​ion and food)'s coloni​​ion and food.

有些人認為，太平洋大部分地區都是波利尼西亞人在迷失、漂流後偶然被困於此從而定居下來的。與此說法相反的是，這項成就是透過深思熟慮的殖民遠徵實現的，人們準備週詳，出發時滿載食物、已培育好的植物和已馴化的動物。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是It seems reasonable that。 that引導一個主詞子句，該主詞子句的主幹是This feat was accomplished by colonization expeditions。 expeditions後面有一個that引導的定語子句，從句中的過去分詞片語stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals在子句中充當狀語，表示伴隨狀態。句首的狀語“contrary to ... lost and adrift”中包含一個that引導的同位語從句“that much of the Pacific ... adrift”，用於解釋說明the arguments，從句中的過去分詞短語accidentally marooned作後置定語修飾Polynesians。

The Athenian philosopher Socrates （470-399 B.C.） was the first person in Greece to propose a morality based on individual conscience rather than the demands of the state, and for this he was accused of not be can ed of the cords 和 for this he was accused of notting accused of. , and he was condemned to death.

雅典哲學家蘇格拉底（公元前470-399年）是希臘第一個提出基於個人良心而不是國家要求的道德準則的人，他為此被控訴不信仰城邦眾神並因此使青年墮落，被判了死刑。

文法筆記：本句由兩個and連結了三個並列的分句，這三個分句的主幹分別是「Socrates was the first person to propose a morality」、「 He was accused of ...」、「 He was condemned to death」。第一個分句中的過去分詞片語based on individual conscience rather than the demands of the state修飾morality。第二個分句中的be accused of doing sth.是固定搭配，意為“被指控做過某事”，其中not believing in the city’s gods和corrupting the youth是通過and連接的並列成分。

Two additional kinds of evidence support the hypothesis that petroleum is a product of the decomposition of organic matter: oil possesses optical properties known only in hydrocarbons derived from organictical properties known only in hydrocarbons derived from organicatter, and o​​lence on matter.

還有兩個證據支持「石油是有機物分解的產物」這個假設：石油的光學特性只在來自有機物的碳氫化合物中存在；石油含有氮和某些化合物，這些物質被認為只能來自生物。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Two kinds of evidence support the hypothesis。同位語子句「that petroleum is a product of ...」解釋說明the hypothesis。在冒號後的第一個分句「oil possesses ... organic matter」中，過去分詞片語known only in hydrocarbons修飾optical properties，過去分詞片語derived from organic matter修飾hydrocarbons。在第二個分句「oil contains ... in living matter」中，過去分詞片語believed to originate only in living matter修飾certain compounds。

Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective, a strain of critical opinion in the 1920s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty that would soon fade from sight, just as temp many previous War, to link images with recorded sound.

雖然從後來的視角來看也許難以想像，但是在20世紀20年代，一種批判性觀點預測有聲電影這項技術新玩意兒將會迅速淡出人們的視線，就像之前——追溯到第一次在世界大戰之前——多次試圖將畫面與錄音連在一起的技術。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是「A strain of opinion predicted that ...」。 That引導一個賓語子句，該賓語子句中包含一個that引導的定語子句that would soon fade from sight，修飾a technical novelty。其後又有一個as引導的狀語子句“as had many ... recorded sound”，as表示“正如、像、和…一樣”。現在分詞片語dating well back before the First World War作後置定語修飾many previous attempts。

In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one sooaled and one quality quentity one 句柄, freity one fality 筆ed leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.

當地小規模的有關友誼、禮拜和生產的平等主義的或類似平等主義的組織在放任自由的環境中繁榮發展，在這樣的多元化中，個體之間可以在和諧和意識形態平等的社區中互相影響，追隨他們自己普選出的領導，透過共識實現自我管理，同時將財富和權利差異最小化。

文法筆記：本句的主幹是Individuals could interact with one another。介詞片語「in the multiplicity ... in this laissez-faire environment」作整句話的狀語，其中包含一個that引導的定語子句「that flourished in this laissez-faire environment」修飾organizations。句尾的現在分詞片語following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus作伴隨狀語。 while引導的時間狀語省略了individuals were。