This happen when the samples are not large enough and/or not representative to conclude.

Focuses on difficulties in the process of interpreting.

Chouse between two extreme alternative without being able to consider additional options.

Occurs when someone presents a casual relationship for which no real evidence exist

After it, therefore because of it. Two thing Occur close together on time, we assume that one caused the other.

asserts that one undesirable action will inevitable lead to a worse action.

Appeals to authorities who are not qualified to give an expert opinion.

Asserting that a practice or way of thinking is "better" or "right", simply because it is older, traditional, or has "always been done that way."

The uncritical acceptance of others' opinions because "everyone believes it" or because one fears being left behind as a popular trens moves forward.

An appeal designed to make us feel sorry for the person involved and agree with the conclusion out of sympathy.

Appealing to the threat of a negative.

Appealing to vanity.

Make a special exception, without sound justification, to the reasonable application of standards, principles, or expectations.

A conclusion that claims to be true unless it can be disproved.

A conclusion that simply assumes to be true without providing relevant evidence.

Attacking or distorting a claim or position by creating an exaggerated or trivialized version of it.

Introducing an irrelevant topic in order to divert attention from the original issue or claim being discussed.

ignoring the issue of the argument and focusing instead on the personal qualities of the person making the argument.

attempts to justify a morally questionable action by arguing is a response to another wrong action, either real or imagined. Two wrong= a right.

Ignoring the issue of the argument and focusing instead on discrediting or criticizing the source.

Locating any relevant info to help solve the problem

Hypothesis: a possible explanation of what has happen.

Cause-to-Effect Experiments(with Intervention)

Cause-to-Effect Experiments(without Intervention)

Effect-to-Cause Experiments