Natural selection is the process of which an individual with a traitthat favours its environment will be more suited to live in it andthus those who don't have said trait will perish.

A simple example would be how if a mutation occured on an insect who lived in agrassy environment and was normally brown that made it green, it would be lesssusceptable to predators finding it and thus that trait will survive while others don't.

When a species is divided and put in differentenvironments, the environment will greatly differthe species from one another.

Depending on the trait, there will betraits that are either dominant orrecessive.

For example, brown eyes are a dominant eyecolour while blue eyes are a recessive eyecolour.

A Punnet Square is a visual methodthat helps us determine traitpossibilities.

Generally, you make a column and a row for each gene thataffects the trait, and then put every possible combination in eachcolumn and row, then combine them in the squares to show if youare homozygous or heterozygous.

Ended up using pea plants, pea plants are goodbecause they have a number of characteristicsthat are easily definable and can breed quickly.

Mendel's Laws

They're children are the F1 generationand the grandparents are the F2generation.

Mendel noticed that sometimes when the P hada purple and a white flower, the F1 is alsopurple.

He observed that some traits, such as a roundedpea, would show up more than a different trait,such as a wrinkled pea.

This is because some traits showdominance over other traits, which wouldbe recessive.

However, sometimes two traits will showcodominance where the two traits both show up,such as in blood type when a type A and a type Bgive a type AB child.

Incomplete dominance is where both traits are "there" such as ared and white flower making a pink flower. Contrasted withcodominance, codominance would show red and white spolchesof colour on the flower in the same situation.

Some disorders are located on certain sexesbecause they are located on the 23rdchromosome, also called the sex chromosome.

These disorders are harder to predict, butmales are very susceptable to thesediseases.

You can still use a Punnet Square todetermine the likelihood, however it isn'tperfect.

Sex-Linked Disorders

As long as there is there is one copy of themutated gene, it will show up in the genotypeas dominant.

Huntington's Disease is a very infamous onebecause you do not show symptoms till you are atleast 40 years of age, allowing you to pass it oneasily.

Anthropomorphism, or dwarfism,is a dominant condition as well.

In order for a recessive disorder to be passed, itmust show two copies of the mutated gene or itwill not be passed down.

Sickle cell anemia, which is a one letter mistakein genetic code, is recessive and will only showup if it is a homozygous recessive.

Other recessive disorders includecystic fibrosis Tay-Sachs disorder, andPKU.

Nonharmful phenotypes are determinedthe same way, such as wet vs. dryearwax.

The DNA helix is like a spiraled ladder. Thesturdy backbone is made of sugars andphosphate groups.

Linking across the bases arefour different types ofnucleiotides.

DNA repliction occurs in the middle ofinterphase, during a part of it called the Sphase.

Enzymes unzip DNA like a zipper and nucleotidescome in, binding with the now available RNA and theyhave to be identical because of how nucleotidesbond.

When a cell is working, it generates protiens tomake up more cells and do other functions,etc.

In order to make proteins, a code has to be given.This code is the DNA. However, DNA cannot fitthrough nuclear pores, so a different process mustoccur.

Enzymes unzip the section of DNA whereproteins will need to be coded for. Then thestrand of RNA is sent out of the nucleus and theDNA is repaired.

Before the RNA is sent out, it is matched by a set ofnucleotides, however anything that will be thymine isreplaced with Uracil. This will happen twice to thestrand.

Once the RNA is out, it floats around until it findsone of the many ribosomes litered throughout therough endoplasmic reticulum.

Once it goes through a ribosome, groups of three nucleotidescalled "codons" are matched with an anticodon that has thenucleotides that match it on one end and an amino acid on theother.

These amino acids link together with peptide bondsand form the protein that the DNA codes for.

In the chlorophyll, the photon excites an electronthrough photoexcitation, causing the electron to breakoff, thus starting the process. Because of this, twothings happen.

The three things are glucose,sunlight, and water

Plants really dig the colours redand blue

They make oxygen (which webreath) as a byproduct of this

Fermentation

The Kreb's cycle takes the pyruvate moleculesand reworks them into 2 more ATP molecules(per glucose molecule)

Some energy is also created

Citric acid is a by-product of thisprocess, so it is also called the "CitricAcid Cycle"

In the membrane of the mitochondria, electronsfrom the NADH are sent to power electronpumps.

Protons from within the mitochondria are sentthrough the chain into an area with very littleroom to move around.

The electrons diffuse through an enzyme calledATP synthase, where the electrons' energies areused to squish ATP together.

The lipid molecules have a polar headand a non-polar tail.

There are two layers of this with theheads pointing in opposite directions.This the the phospholipid bilayer.

Channel proteins use passivetransport to allow water and oxygen in

They are basically gaps where watercan get in, and water knows to do itbecause the insides are hydrophilic.

Most chemicals get into the cellusing active transport.

Active transport is normally used to battlediffusion and combat the concentrationgradient.

Almost any movement your cells dowhen transporting needs a handy littlemolecule of ATP to power it.

Cytosis

Using passive transport does notrequire any energy! This is usefulso water and oxygen can get in.

This happens through nature wantingeverything to be in equilibrium.

These pairs are ripped apart, leaving the end sexcell with hall the chromosome that came fromthe father and half from the mother.

Sex chromosomes are different, depending on the sex chromosome thefirst sex cell has, you can be XX or XY. XX is a girl, and this pair ishappy, however in XY, the X hates the stumpy little Y and they don't for apair, changing DNA depending on whether the child would be a girl or aboy.

Longest period a cell is in

The cell can be developing in thisstage, making new DNA molecules,or just working

Phases G1 and G2 are used forgrowing while phase Ssynthesizes DNA

A small amount of the time, afterinterphase, a cell will enter mitosis, whichhas five main phases.

A scanning electron microscope is used tostudy cell surfaces

A transmission electron microscope is used tostudy the inside of cells

Nucleolus in the nucleus createsribosomes that are sent to roughendoplasmic reticulum

Contains DNA

Created in the nucleolus andsent to the roughendoplasmic reticulum

Rough ER

Smooth ER

The Golgi apparatus puts the finishing toucheson the macromolecules produced, thenorganizes then sends them out of the cell outto where they should go.

The mitochondria are the power sources ofcells. They give them power to move, divide,and basically make it function.

A mitochondrion combines sugars fromcarbohydrates and mixes it with oxygen tocreate ATP, the main energy source for a cellto power.

Pushes cell membrane and makes it secure

Turn solar energy, carbondioxide, and water into glucose

Main parts of cells that deal withphotosynthesis in the plant

The cell wall is very rigid and is the main thingin keeping a plant cell together

Found in prokaryotes as well

Central vacuole takes up at leasthalf of the cell and serves thepurpose as basically a largelysosome

The vacuole helps with intracelluardigestion

Found in animal cells too, but smaller

Can also be found in animal cells, helps thecell move around

They help attach bacteria to surfaces so theydon't fall and can spread faster

Where the DNA is held

What holds the nucleoid together

The outer wall that holds together the cell andconnects the pili to the cell

These are transfer vesicles much like vacuolesto plant cells and carry certain things from theER to the Golgi apparatus

Monosaccharides have one monomer

Can be detected by Benedict's solution or

a glucose test strip

Glycogen stores energy for short bursts in

muscle tissue

Common monosaccharides are glucose and

fructose (basically the same thing but still)

Disaccharides have two monomers

A common disaccharide is sucrose, lactose,

and maltose

Polysaccharides can havethousands of monomers

Commonly referred to as "starches"

Can be detected by iodine

RNA is a single helix

DNA is a double helix

that creates proteins

These two form our genetic makeup

A virus contains one DNA or RNA strand with aprotein shell

Aside from composing our DNA and RNA,

nucleotides help with signaling cells and help

with enzymatic reactions

They are generally made up of a varyingnumber of phosphates, sugars, and have anitrogen base

Different amino acids form different proteins,which are the main pieces of building things

There are twenty different amino acids

An amino acids carbon base allows it to bondwith many other molecules, this variable iscalled the R-group

This R-group determines whattype of amino acid it will be

An enzyme can only act when the substratereaches the activation site

The enzyme is unique to the chemical reaction.Depending on the chemical reaction you canhave numerous enzymes that will only workwith that substrate

Sort of like a lock and key, once you have the"lock", the substrate at the activation site, the"key", the enzyme, can unlock the products

These products do everything from produceessential things for the body to diffusing toxins

You can denature an enzyme with"denaturation", which changes theshape of an enzyme, rendering ituseless. This can can be done in avariety of methods.

Steroids

Cholesterol

Fatty Acids

Phospholipids

Fats are packets of energy that are beingstored for later use

Energy from complex carbohydrates is brokendown here and stored, also

Unlike glycogen, this is only released whenneeded, while glycogen releases it for an extraboost

When a fat is plentiful with hydrogen, we callthat saturated, and when it lacks hydrogen, itis unsaturated.

Trans fat doesn't have anything to do with these

A saturated fat is a solid, and an unsaturatedfat is a liquid