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MindMap Gallery Cell, tissue adaptation and damage

Cell, tissue adaptation and damage

This is a mind map about Chapter 2: Adaptation and Damage of Cells and Tissues. It introduces classification, definitions and other knowledge points in detail. It can be used for exam review to improve learning efficiency!

Edited at 2024-04-22 22:00:03

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Cell, tissue adaptation and damage

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Outline

Chapter 2 Adaptation and Damage of Cells and Tissues

Adaptation of cells and tissues

Adaptation: When the environment changes, the cells, tissues or organs of the body make corresponding changes in their own metabolism, function and structure to avoid damage caused by environmental changes. This process is called adaptation.

Classification

shrink

The shrinkage of normally developing cells, tissues, or organs into atrophy

Different from undeveloped and underdeveloped

The atrophied heart becomes darker because the atrophic cardiomyocytes contain lipofuscin particles.

Classification according to cause

Physiological atrophy

normal phenomena of life process

Often occurs after menopause and senile

Example: involution: atrophy of the thymus after puberty (differentiation: involution: the return of the uterus and breast tissue to their original size after childbirth and lactation)

pathological atrophy

Classified according to different causes (usually not classified)

systemic dystrophic atrophy

Common in patients with long-term hunger, chronic wasting diseases, and malignant tumors

neurological atrophy

Polio

apraxia of atrophy

Caused by long-term inactivity of limbs and functional decline

compressive atrophy

For example, glasses press on the bridge of the nose

endocrine atrophy

Endocrine dysfunction causes corresponding atrophy

ischemic atrophy

Also called localized dystrophic atrophy

The underlying logic of the cause

Insufficient intake;

malabsorption;

Excessive consumption; endocrine disorders (metabolism related)

Pathological changes

naked eye

Atrophic organs become smaller in size, lose weight, and become darker or brown (lipofuscin granules)

under the mirror

The size of solid organs is reduced or the number is visible, and fibrous tissue hyperplasia or fat tissue increases in the interstitium.

ending

reversible disease

As long as the cause of the disease is eliminated, the atrophic part can gradually return to its original shape.

If the cause of the disease is not eliminated, the atrophic cells will gradually disappear through apoptosis.

Fat

The increase in the size of cellular tissue or organs is called hypertrophy (usually caused by an increase in the size of organ parenchymal cells, which is mainly based on an increase in organelles)

Distinguish between hypertrophy and hyperplasia: Hypertrophy is an increase in cell volume, and hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells (the two processes are different, but their mechanisms overlap and often occur together)

reason

Physiological hypertrophy (hormonal)

Uterine hypertrophy during pregnancy and breast hypertrophy during lactation

Pathological hypertrophy (compensatory)

Often caused by increased load on organ function, such as unilateral kidney removal

hyperplasia

The increase in the size of tissues and organs due to an increase in the number of parenchymal cells is called hyperplasia.

reason

physiological hyperplasia

1. Hormonal 2. Compensation

Breast development during adolescence, uterine and breast hyperplasia during pregnancy are both physiological hyperplasia and endocrine hyperplasia.

Pathological hyperplasia

1. Excessive hormone stimulation 2. In the process of inflammation and repair

1. The cause of the disease is eliminated and proliferation stops. 2. It may also continue to develop into neoplastic hyperplasia

Hyperplasia is the result of active cell mitosis and is usually regulated by proliferation genes and growth factors

Metaplasia

The process of transforming one differentiated tissue into another differentiated tissue in order to adapt to changes in the environment is called metaplasia.

Transformations occur between tissues and cells with similar properties

epithelial metaplasia

Squamous metaplasia

For example, the ciliated columnar epithelium of the tracheal and bronchial mucosa can transform into squamous epithelium when damaged by long-term smoking or chronic inflammation.

There is reproducibility

Intestinal metaplasia

Commonly found in the body and antrum of the stomach

Classification based on metaplastic morphology and mucus

large intestinal metaplasia

small intestinal metaplasia

mesenchymal tissue metaplasia

Connective tissue, adipose tissue, vascular tissue, bone and cartilage tissue, mucus tissue, lymphatic hematopoietic tissue, striated muscle and smooth muscle tissue, synovial membrane, etc.

Mesenchymal tissue: A general term for tissues developed from mesenchymal differentiation of mesoderm.

The most common metaplasia of fibrous connective tissue into bone, cartilage or adipose tissue

Common examples of metaplasia

(1) Metaplasia of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium into squamous epithelium (2) Metaplasia of gastric mucosal epithelium into intestinal epithelium (3) Metaplasia of fibroblasts into osteoblasts

Metaplasia is not harmful to the human body

transdifferentiation

The process in which one type of differentiated cells is structurally and functionally transformed into another type of differentiated cells through selective expression of genes is called cell transdifferentiation.

epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Refers to the biological process by which epithelial cells transform into mesenchymal cells.

Damage to cells and tissues

After tissues and cells are stimulated by harmful factors that exceed their compensatory capacity, the material metabolism, histochemistry, ultrastructure, light microscopy, and naked eye visible changes of cells and interstitial cells

Cause of injury

Hypoxia (common and important cause) Ischemia, ischemia-reperfusion injury

Physics, chemistry, biology, immunity, genetics, nutritional disorders

The mechanism of cell damage: (1) Destroy the cell membrane (2) Damage reactive oxygen species (3) Damage high free calcium in the cytoplasm (4) Cause hypoxia (5) Chemical cell damage (6) Genetic material variation

Damaged cells first undergo metabolic changes, followed by histochemical and ultrastructural changes, and finally morphological changes visible to the naked eye and under light microscopy.

Classification

reversible damage

transsexual

The amount of abnormal substances or normal substances in cells or interstitium increases significantly, accompanied by varying degrees of dysfunction.

Classification

watery denaturation

Also known as cellular edema, it is caused by damaged mitochondria, reduced ATP production, and dysfunction of the cell membrane sodium pump, leading to excessive accumulation of intracellular water and NA ions. In the early stage of the disease, the cell mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum swell, forming fine granules that appear in the cytoplasm under a light microscope.

Steatosis

Tabby heart

The organ most commonly affected by steatosis is the liver

Hepatocellular edema, which, if the cause persists, can transform into hepatocellular steatosis

Mainly occurs in parenchymal cells

hyaline degeneration

1) Connective tissue hyaline degeneration: common in scar tissue

(2) Hyalinous degeneration of blood vessel walls: common in small arteries during hypertension

(3) Intracellular hyaline degeneration

Mallory’s body: viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease

Russell’s body: chronic inflammation, immunoglobulin accumulation

myxoid degeneration

amyloidosis

Mainly occurs in mesenchymal tissue

material deposition

Glycogen deposition

pathological pigmentation

Refers to the excessive accumulation of colored substances (pigments) in cells and tissues.

Hemosiderin (golden or brown)

pathological calcification

Refers to the deposition of solid calcium salts in tissues other than bones and teeth.

Naked eye: Lime-like hard granular or lumpy appearance

dystrophic calcification

a. Common b. Found in degenerated and necrotic tissues or foreign bodies c. Whole body calcium and phosphorus metabolism is normal, and blood calcium is normal.

More common in tuberculosis and atherosclerosis

metastatic calcification

a. Rare b. Abnormal calcium and phosphorus metabolism throughout the body, elevated blood calcium or blood phosphorus c. Commonly seen in hyperparathyroidism

More common in hyperparathyroidism and excessive vitamin D intake

irreversible damage

Necrosis

Death of local tissues and cells in vivo

Morphological changes

Changes to the naked eye

①The appearance is dull and turbid; ② No blood supply, temperature ↓, no pulsation of blood vessels, and no fresh blood flowing out during debridement; ③ Loss of normal tissue elasticity. ④Loss of normal sensation and motor functions.

It takes a certain amount of time for changes to the naked eye to appear

Deactivated tissue: Clinically, tissue that has lost its ability to live is called inactivated tissue.

Changes under the mirror

Changes in the nucleus: nuclear pyknosis, nuclear fragmentation, and nuclear lysis

Cytoplasmic changes: eosinophilia becomes stronger, HE turns red, and ribosomes decrease

Interstitial changes: matrix disintegration, red staining, no structure, fuzzy granular shape

Classification

Solidification

Naked eye: Dry, solid (hard); grayish-yellow; clear boundary with healthy tissue

Commonly found in heart, kidney, spleen

Light microscopy: nuclear pyknosis, nuclear fragmentation, karyolysis and eosinophilic staining of the cytoplasm, but the outline of the tissue structure still exists

Liquefaction

Some tissues are decomposed into a liquid state by enzymes after necrosis, and can form necrotic cysts. At this time, hydrolysis of necrotic tissue dominates.

Mainly occurs in tissues that contain less protein, more lipids, or produce more proteases

Naked eye: liquid state

Examples: encephalomalacia, purulent inflammation, amoebic abscess (liver) (the reason why brain tissue is prone to liquefaction necrosis is that brain tissue is rich in lipids)

special type

caseous necrosis

Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis; special, complete coagulative necrosis

Naked eyes: The necrotic lesions contain more lipids, are light yellow, uniform and delicate, and have a solid texture, resembling cheese.

Under the microscope: red-stained, structureless granular material

fibrinoid necrosis

Occurs in: interstitium, collagen fibers (rheumatism), and small vessel walls (malignant hypertension)

Under the microscope: the original tissue structure disappears and becomes granular, small strips or small lumps of unknown state, without structure, strongly eosinophilic (red), like fibrin.

A common form of necrosis that occurs in connective tissue and small blood vessel walls. It is more common in rheumatism, crescentic glomerulonephritis, acute hypertension and other diseases.

gangrene

After tissue necrosis, secondary infection by putrefactive bacteria causes special morphological changes such as black and dark green, which is called gangrene.

Classification

dry gangrene

It is more common in the distal extremities of diseases such as atherosclerosis, thromboangiitis obliterans, and frostbite.

The arteries are blocked, the venous return is smooth, the necrotic tissue has little water, the lesion is dry and shrunken, dark brown, and has a clear boundary with the surrounding tissue. The infection by putrefactive bacteria is generally mild.

wet gangrene

It mostly occurs in the internal organs that are connected to the outside world, and can also occur in the limbs (it can occur in the limbs but is uncommon)

High water content, obvious local swelling, severe infection by putrefactive bacteria, dark green or jet black color

Gas gangrene is a special type of wet gangrene (mainly seen in severe open wounds that reach deep into the muscle, and when combined with infection by anaerobic bacteria such as Clostridium perfringens, there is a crepitus when pressed)

ending

Dissolve and absorb

Smaller necrotic lesions are hydrolyzed and liquefied by protease and then absorbed through lymphatic vessels.

For larger necrotic lesions, the non-absorbable fragments are phagocytized and digested by macrophages, and the remaining tissue defects are further repaired by cell regeneration or granulation tissue.

Separate discharge

The liquefied marginal tissue is hydrolyzed by protease to separate the necrotic focus from the surrounding tissue and then be discharged.

If the necrotic focus is located in the skin or mucous membrane, it will fall off and form a superficial lesion limited to the epidermis and mucosa layer, which is called erosion.

Defects that extend deep into the subcutaneous and submucosal areas are called ulcers.

After liquefaction, the necrotic tissue in internal organs such as kidneys and lungs can be discharged through the corresponding pipes (ureter, trachea), leaving a cavity and becoming a cavity.

The fertile duct in the skin or mucous membrane is called the sinus.

The pathological passage between the body surface and the hollow organ or between the hollow organ and the hollow organ is called a fistula.

Mechanization

The process of replacing necrotic tissue or other abnormal materials with new granulation tissue is called mechanization.

package, calcification

Encapsulation: If the necrotic tissue is large in scope, or the necrotic tissue is difficult to dissolve and absorb, or cannot be completely calcified, it is surrounded by surrounding connective tissue, which is called encapsulation.

autolysis of necrotic cells

apoptosis

Also known as programmed cell death, it is an active cell death method that is different from necrosis in both its clinical and biochemical characteristics.

It occurs due to the cell's own gene regulation, and its main morphological feature is the formation of apoptotic bodies.

Apoptosis mostly occurs in single or several cells and does not cause surrounding inflammatory reactions or induce proliferation and repair of surrounding cells.

Visible in both physiological and certain pathological conditions

Ageing

When the body matures and ages, the organs and tissue structures of the body undergo a series of degenerative changes, and cell functions gradually weaken and tend to die. This process is called aging.