Short duration, a few seconds to minutes

Limited capacity

Long lasting, from a few minutes to a lifetime

Virtually unlimited capacity

Includes explicit memory (facts and figures) and implicit memory (skills and habits)

Definition: Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to change its structure and function and is the basis of learning and memory.

type:

Definition: Refers to the phenomenon that synaptic connections between neurons become stronger after continued stimulation.

Mechanism: Enhances the transmission of nerve signals by increasing the number or sensitivity of receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

Importance: Considered to be the molecular basis of learning and memory formation.

Hippocampus: Plays a central role in long-term memory formation, especially in the process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories.

Prefrontal cortex: Related to decision-making, planning, and inhibitory control, and also involved in complex cognitive tasks, including the retrieval of memories.

Amygdala: Processes emotional memories, especially those related to fear.

Acetylcholine: Linked to enhanced learning and memory, particularly in the hippocampus.

Glutamate: As the primary excitatory neurotransmitter, it is critical for LTP and memory formation.

Dopamine and serotonin: affect mood and motivation, and indirectly affect learning and memory.

Synaptic weakening (long-term weakening, LTD): As opposed to LTP, it is a phenomenon in which the strength of connections between neurons weakens and is related to forgetfulness.

Neuronal reorganization: Old neural connections are replaced by new experiences, possibly leading to the loss of old memories.

Gene Expression and Memory: Studying how specific genes influence neuroplasticity and memory formation.

Neuroimaging techniques: Use techniques such as MRI and PET scans to observe brain activity to understand the neural basis of memory.

Forgetting speed: The speed of information forgetting is very fast at first and slows down as time goes by.

The effect of review: Regular review can significantly slow down the speed of forgetting.

Memory is not a simple recording or filming, but a process of reconstruction during recall.

Memory is affected by current mental state and environment.

Memory retrieval is related to factors such as the environment and emotional state at the time of encoding.

The more similar the learning and recall environments are, the better the memory retrieval will be.

The physical environment has an impact on memory retrieval.

Emotional state is also an important factor, known as emotion-dependent memory.

Distributed learning (spaced learning) works better than centralized learning (one-shot learning).

Repeated review in a short period of time is more conducive to the formation of long-term memory than one-time study over a long period of time.

The depth of information processing affects the persistence of memory.

Deep processing (understanding the meaning of information) is more conducive to long-term memory retention than shallow processing (such as repetition).

Different types of memory (such as semantic memory, episodic memory) follow different rules.

Skill learning (implicit memory) has different storage and retrieval mechanisms than fact memory (explicit memory).

Retrieval cues can aid memory retrieval.

The more specific the clue, the greater the likelihood of retrieving the memory.

Definition: Information is not efficiently encoded before entering long-term memory.

Reason: Distraction is one of the main reasons.

Definition: A memory trace that becomes weaker and weaker over time until it disappears.

Theory: Temporal decay theory suggests that forgetting occurs because memories naturally decay over time.

Competitive interference: Old and new information interfere with each other, including:

Theoretical basis: It is believed that forgetting is not due to memory loss, but due to competition or confusion between multiple pieces of information.

Definition: Information remains stored in the brain but cannot be retrieved when needed.

Reason: There is a lack of effective clues or the clues do not match the learning environment.

Emotional amnesia: Intense emotional states, especially negative emotions, may interfere with the memory and retrieval of information.

Stress and Anxiety: Excessive stress and anxiety can impair memory encoding and retrieval.

Brain injury: Physical damage that causes memory loss, such as a concussion or other type of brain injury.

Drugs and Alcohol: Certain drugs and excessive alcohol consumption can affect the encoding and retrieval of memories.

Psychological Suppression: Individuals may unintentionally choose to forget memories that are unpleasant or cause distress.

Motivated forgetting theory: It is believed that forgetting is a defense mechanism to help individuals cope with emotional conflicts or stress.

Trace Decay Theory

Interference Theory

Definition: A memory that remains but cannot be retrieved due to missing or inappropriate retrieval cues.

Examples: cue-dependent forgetting, context effects.

Motivated forgetting theory (motivated forgetting theory)

Definition: Information is never effectively encoded into long-term memory and therefore cannot be recalled.

Example: Divided attention results in information being under-noticed and encoded.

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Definition: Emotional factors influence the encoding and retrieval of memory, especially negative emotions.

Mechanism: Emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal or suppression, influence memory processes.