1. Lower stage. Live where they originally lived, at least partially in the trees. The production of syllable-clear language was the major achievement of this period.

2. Intermediate stage. Beginning with the adoption of fish for food and the use of fire. Crude, unpolished stone tools from the early Stone Age that have been scattered throughout most of the Earth. Additional food prey. Probably cannibalism occurred.

3. Advanced stage. Beginning with the invention of the bow and arrow. Prey becomes common food. There were already some germs of settlement into villages, and some degree of mastery over the production of the means of subsistence.

The differences in natural conditions between the two continents took on significance. Unique signs are the domestication and breeding of animals and the cultivation of plants. The Eastern Continent has almost all animals suitable for domestication and all grains suitable for cultivation except one. In the Western Continent (America), only one kind of mammal, the alpaca, is found in some places in the south. There is only one type of cereal that can be grown, and the best one is maize. The two hemispheres have since followed their own unique paths.

1. Lower stage. Start by learning how to make pottery.

2. Intermediate stage. Eastern Continent: Beginning with the domestication of poultry for milk and meat; plant cultivation appears to be unknown. Western Continent: Beginning with the cultivation of edible plants with the help of irrigation and the use of adobe and stone in buildings; knowing the processing of metals other than iron, and using stone weapons and tools; no one went beyond this before being conquered by Europeans stage.

3. Advanced stage. It started with the smelting of iron ore and transitioned to the civilized era due to the invention of pinyin culture and its application in documentary records. The Eastern Hemisphere has independently experienced a greater progress in production than all previous periods put together. For the first time, we saw the plow pulled by livestock with an iron share. Field agriculture (the means of living increased virtually without limit under the conditions at that time) became possible. Forests could be cut down to turn them into cultivated land and pasture. The population increased rapidly and became dense. Live together in a small area. Its heyday can be seen in Homer's poems, especially the Iliad.

The marriage group is divided according to generation: all the grandfathers and grandmothers within the family are husband and wife to each other; so are their children, the father and mother; the children of the latter constitute the third circle of common husband and wife; and so on.

This family form only excludes the mutual rights and obligations of husband and wife between ancestors and descendants, and between parents and children.

Brothers and sisters, first cousins, second cousins, and second cousins ​​with further blood lines are all brothers and sisters of each other, and they are also husband and wife. The relationship between brothers and sisters naturally includes mutual sexual relations.

A row or series of sisters formed the nucleus of one commune, while their brothers formed the nucleus of another.

A certain number of sisters - compatriots or more distant blood - are the common wives of their common husbands, but among these common husbands are excluded their brothers; these husbands no longer call each other brothers, but universal brothers. Naluya, a close companion. Similarly, a group of brothers, either of the same blood or of distant blood, would marry a certain number of women (as long as they were not their own sisters), and these women would also call each other Punalua.

Within a certain family scope, there are mutual husbands and wives, but the wife's brothers (at first compatriots, and later those with more distant blood) are excluded from this family scope, and on the other hand, the husband's sisters are also excluded.

The children of my mother's sisters are still my mother's children. Similarly, the children of my father's brothers are still my father's children. They are all my brothers and sisters; but the children of my mother's brothers are still my father's children. For the first time it became necessary to divide the children of sisters into the categories of nephews and nieces, nephews and nieces, cousins.

In all forms of group marriage families, who is the father of a child is uncertain, but who is the mother is certain. As long as group marriage existed, lineage could only be determined from the mother's side, and therefore only the female line was recognized.

The members of the clan that later formed the original form all had a common female ancestor; all the women in the descendants were sisters in each generation, but the husbands of these sisters could no longer be their brothers, and therefore could not be descended from this female ancestor. , and therefore were not included in the group of blood relatives, which later became the clan; however, their children belonged to this group, because only the only known maternal lineage had a decisive role.

Once the prohibition on sexual relations between all brothers and sisters, and even between the most distant collateral relatives on the mother's side, was established, it was transformed into a clan, forming a definite group of female blood relatives who could not marry each other.

The entire tribe is divided into two levels: Cloki and Kumide. Sexual relations are strictly prohibited within each caste; conversely, every man of one caste is by birth the husband of every woman of another caste, and the latter is by birth the wife of the former. Not single individuals, but whole groups marry each other, i.e. rank to rank. There are only restrictions imposed by the division of exogamous levels.

Camillaroi of New South Wales: Two original castes split into four, each caste married to some other caste as a whole. The first two levels are born as husband and wife to each other, and depending on whether the mother belongs to the first or second level, her children belong to the third or fourth level, and so on.

A man has a chief wife among many wives, and he is to the woman the chief husband among her many husbands. The marriage tie can easily be dissolved by either party, and the children remain, as before, exclusively the mother's.

This has already happened under the system of group marriage, or even earlier.

This kind of family itself is still very fragile and unstable, and cannot make people need or just hope to have their own household economy. Therefore, it does not disintegrate the communist household economy passed down from the early days at all. The communist household economy means women's rule in the family, just as recognizing only the biological mother without being able to identify the biological father means high respect for women, that is, mothers.

A widely popular form of transition from group marriage to pair marriage, that is, women purchase the right to chastity, redeem themselves from the old communal system, and gain the right to devote themselves to only one man. Atonement was a limited atonement, and as time progressed, the atoning sacrifice became lighter and lighter.

The relationship between the sexes inherited from ancient times will inevitably make women feel more humiliated as the economic and living conditions develop, and as the ancient communism disintegrates and the population density increases, the simple nature of the primitive life in the forest is lost. and repression; women will inevitably demand more urgently the right to maintain chastity and the right to marry only one man temporarily or permanently as a means of relief.

Produced in the period when the savagery and barbarism alternated, America is a typical area of ​​dual families.

The domestication of livestock and the reproduction of herds developed unprecedented sources of wealth and created entirely new social relations. This new wealth was undoubtedly originally owned by the clan, but private ownership of herds also developed early, and at the earliest stages of written history herds are seen as the special property of the head of the family.

Slavery had been invented, but human labor was not yet able to provide a significant surplus over the expense of maintaining it. This changed when livestock breeding, metalworking, textiles, and finally field farming were introduced, especially after the herds were fully transferred to family ownership.

Pair marriage adds a new factor to the family. In addition to the biological mother, it also determines the real biological father. According to the division of labor within the family at that time, the husband's responsibility was to obtain food and the necessary labor tools, and he also acquired ownership of the labor tools. According to the matriarchal system, his children cannot inherit his property, and the property must remain within the clan, but his children do not belong to his clan, but to their mother's clan.

With the increase in wealth, on the one hand, the husband occupies a more important position in the family than the wife. On the other hand, there is a driving force to use this enhanced position to abolish the traditional inheritance system and make it beneficial to children. Therefore, matriarchy must be abolished and therefore abolished. All members of the clan can still remain as before, with only a simple decision, which stipulates that the children of male members of the clan should stay in the clan, while the children of female members should leave the clan and transfer to their father's clan. In this way, the calculation of descent is changed from the female line to the male line, and the inheritance rights are changed from the maternal line to the paternal line.

The first result of the male dictatorship established in this way was manifested in the intermediate form of the patriarchal family (which entered written history) at this time: the head of the family controlled his wife, children and a certain number of slaves with Roman patriarchy, and exercised control over them. Holds the power of life and death. This form represents the transition from dualism to monogamy.

Based on the husband's rule, the obvious purpose is to produce children with a certain biological father. The necessity of certainty is because the children will inherit their father's property as biological heirs in the future.

The difference from the dual system is that the marriage relationship is much stronger and cannot be dissolved arbitrarily by both parties. As a rule, only the husband can dissolve a marriage and drive away his wife. The right to be unfaithful in marriage was at least still guaranteed to the husband by customs at this time, and with the further development of society, it became more and more widespread. When the wife recalled the past sexual practice and wanted to resume it, she had to keep it to a higher level than ever before. Need more severe punishment.

It is the coexistence of slavery and monogamy, and the existence of young and beautiful female slaves who are completely dominated by men, that gives monogamy its special character from the beginning, making it a matter only for women. It is not a monogamy for men. This nature is still preserved to this day.

Monogamy is the first family form based not on natural conditions but on economic conditions, that is, on the victory of private property over the original, naturally occurring public property.

The origin of monogamy has absolutely nothing to do with individual sexual love, because marriage is still a marriage of weighing advantages and disadvantages as before. The dominance of the husband in the family, and the begetting of children who could be his own only and who were sure to inherit his property—such were the sole purposes of monogamy, frankly declared by the Greeks.

Individual marriage did not appear in history as a reconciliation between men and women, let alone as the highest form of such reconciliation. Quite the opposite. It emerged as the enslavement of women by men, as an announcement of a conflict between the sexes unprecedented in all prehistory.

With the emergence of patriarchal families, especially monogamous individual families, housework lost its public nature and became a private service. The wife became the main domestic maid and was excluded from social production. outside. Only modern large-scale industry has opened up ways for women—only proletarian women—to participate in social production.

It arose from the dual family at the alternation between the intermediate and advanced stages of barbarism, and its final victory was one of the signs of the beginning of civilization.

Sexual relations outside of marriage between men and unmarried women that coexist with monogamy.

It originated directly from the marriage group system and from the sacrifices made by women to redeem their right to chastity.

With the emergence of property differences, wage labor appeared sporadically alongside slave labor. As its inevitable complement, professional prostitution of free women also emerged alongside the forced devotion of female slaves.

From monogamy—either within it, parallel to it, or contrary to it, depending on the circumstances—developed the greatest moral progress we owe to monogamy: the entire past Modern personal sex unknown to the world.

Among all ruling classes, marriage is still a matter of weighing the pros and cons, arranged by the parents, as it has been since the marriage of couples. Therefore, the first form of sexual love that appeared in history was love, a love that everyone (at least everyone in the ruling class) could enjoy, and the highest form of sexual impulse (which is exactly what happened). The characteristics of sexual love), and the first form of sexual love, the kind of knightly love in the Middle Ages, was not conjugal love at all.

Among today's bourgeoisie, there are two ways to enter into a marriage. First, in Catholic countries, parents still choose suitable wives for their young bourgeois sons, and the contradictions inherent in monogamy are fully developed: husbands engage in promiscuity and wives engage in adultery. Second, in Protestant countries, the sons of the bourgeoisie are allowed more or less freedom to choose wives from their own class. A certain degree of love may become the basis for marriage. The husband's promiscuity is less severe and the wife's adultery is less common.

Only among the oppressed classes, today among the proletariat, has sex become and can become the norm in relations with women, whether such relations are officially sanctioned or not. There was no property here, and therefore no impetus to establish male rule.

Women are increasingly deprived of their sexual freedom in group marriages, while men are not. Group marriage actually still exists for men today. Everything that is considered a crime for women and has serious legal and social consequences is considered an honor for men, or at most a minor moral stain that can be readily accepted.

Monogamy arises because a large amount of wealth is concentrated in the hands of one person, and this wealth must be passed on to the children of this man. With the transfer of the means of production to public ownership, the individual family is no longer an economic unit of society, private housework becomes a social undertaking, the necessity for a certain number of women to devote themselves to money disappears, and monogamy and its supplementary material pleasures will disappear.

Modern sex: 1. It is based on the corresponding love of the beloved as the premise, and men and women are equal; 2. Sex often reaches such an intense and lasting level that it is a great misfortune to not be able to combine, and one has to risk everything to achieve union; 3. Evaluation of sexual relationships With new moral standards, is it marital or adultery, vs., does it happen out of love and corresponding love?

Full freedom to marry can be universally realized only after the elimination of capitalist production and the property relations it creates, and thus the elimination of all additional economic considerations that today still have a huge influence on the choice of a spouse. Then there will be no other motive than mutual admiration.

Titles such as father, son, brother, sister, etc., are not simply honorary titles, but represent completely certain and extremely solemn mutual obligations. The sum of these obligations constitutes a substantial part of the social system of these peoples.

Groups and families of higher animals do not complement each other, but oppose each other.

Mutual tolerance of adult males, without jealousy, is the first condition for the formation of large and lasting groups, and only in such groups can the transformation from animals to humans be achieved.

The development of the family in primitive history consisted in the continual narrowing of the circle which originally included the whole tribe and within which common marriage of both sexes prevailed.

Break with tradition within its confines when practical interests provide sufficient impetus.

The modern family, in its inception, included not only slavery but also serfdom, since it was from the beginning associated with the labor of cultivating the fields. It encompasses in miniature all the antagonisms that later develop broadly in society and its state.

The original division of labor was that between men and women for the purpose of producing children.

The initial class antagonism that appeared in history occurred at the same time as the development of antagonism between husband and wife under monogamy, and the initial class oppression occurred at the same time as the oppression of women by men. Individual marriage is a great historical progress, but at the same time, together with slavery and private property, it opened up an era that continues to this day. In this era, any progress is also a relative regression, because in this kind of progress In this world, the happiness and development of some people are achieved through the pain and repression of others.

The modern individual family is based on the overt or covert domestic slavery of women, while modern society is a totality composed purely of individual families. In most cases today, the husband is the earner and the breadwinner of the family, which places the husband in a dominant position that does not require the protection of any special legal privileges. In the family, the husband is the bourgeoisie and the wife is equivalent to the proletariat. The first prerequisite for women's liberation is for all women to return to public work; and to achieve this, it is necessary to eliminate the attribute of the individual family as an economic unit of society.

A person can be fully responsible for his actions only if he acts with completely free will, and it is a moral obligation to resist any force that forces people to engage in immoral behavior.

subtopic

1. Elect a chief (the peacetime leader) and a chief (military leader). The chief is hereditary (matriarchal system, choose brother or nephew) and cannot be vacant. The chief can be elected from outside the clan and can be temporarily vacant.

2. The clan can remove chiefs and chiefs at will, decided jointly by men and women. After being removed, they become private individuals.

3. No one in the clan may intermarry within the clan. This is the fundamental rule of the clan and the bond that maintains the clan.

4. The property of the deceased is transferred to the rest of the clan and must remain in the clan. The relics were smaller and shared among his nearest relatives of the same clan.

5. People of the same clan must help and protect each other, especially when they are harmed by foreigners, they must help and avenge each other.

6. Clan has fixed personal names or several sets of personal names. Only the clan can use these personal names in the entire tribe. Clan names are accompanied by clan rights from the beginning.

7. The clan can admit outsiders into the clan and thus absorb them as members of the entire tribe. Accepted as a man's brother or sister, or a woman's child.

8. Indian religious rituals are more or less connected with clans.

9. The clan has a common cemetery.

10. The clan has a council, which is a democratic assembly in which all adult men and women of the clan have equal voting rights. It is the highest authority of the clan.

1. The five blood-related tribes form an eternal alliance based on complete equality and independence in all internal affairs of the tribe. Blood kinship is the true basis of the alliance, and the members are considered brothers. A common language that differs only in dialect is an expression and proof of a common descent.

2. The organ of the alliance is the alliance council, which is composed of 50 chiefs with equal status and prestige, and makes the final decision on all affairs of the alliance.

3. These 50 chiefs are assigned to various tribes and clans to hold new public offices specially created for the purpose of the alliance. When the vacancies are vacant, the relevant clans will re-elect, and the relevant clans can also remove them at any time. The power of appointment belongs to the alliance council.

4. These chiefs are also chiefs in their respective tribes and enjoy the right to participate in tribal councils and vote.

5. All resolutions of the Alliance Council must be passed unanimously.

6. Voting is held by tribe, and all members of each tribe and the council within each tribe must unanimously approve the resolution to be valid.

7. Each of the five tribal councils can convene an alliance council, but the alliance council itself cannot convene itself.

8. The meeting was held in public before the assembled people, and each Iroquois could speak; but only the council could decide.

9. The alliance does not have a chief executive, that is, there is no head with executive power.

10. The alliance has two supreme military chiefs with equal functions and equal power (similar to the two "kings" of the Spartans and the two consuls of Rome).

This very simple and unsophisticated clan system has everything in order. This is how humans and human society were before they were divided into different classes.

But this kind of organization is destined to perish. It does not go beyond the scope of the tribe. Anyone outside the tribe is not protected by the law.

The premise of the clan system in its heyday was that production was extremely underdeveloped and the population in a vast area was extremely sparse. Human beings were almost completely dominated by the incomprehensible external nature that was opposite to others.

Tribes have always been people's boundaries, whether for people from other tribes or for themselves: tribes, clans and their systems are sacred and inviolable. They are the highest rights given by nature. Individuals have great rights in their feelings, thoughts and Always be unconditionally obedient in action. They are completely indistinguishable from each other and are the umbilical cord of a naturally formed community.

The power of this naturally formed community must be broken, and broken. But it was broken by the most despicable interests and the most despicable means, which people felt was a degenerate force from the beginning. It is just a picture of a mere minority seeking development at the expense of the exploited and oppressed majority.

1. Common religious sacrifices and the privileges of priests in worshiping certain gods. This god was assumed to be the male ancestor of the clan, and a unique name was used to mark this status.

2. Common cemetery.

3. Mutual inheritance rights.

4. Mutual obligations to provide assistance, protection and support in the event of infringement.

5. Mutual rights and obligations of marriage within the gens under certain circumstances, especially where orphans or heiresses are concerned.

6. Owned property in common, at least in some cases, and had its own chief and treasurer.

7. Calculation of descent according to patriarchy.

8. Intermarriage within the clan is prohibited, with the exception of heiresses. This exception shows that the old rule is still valid, and exogamy is the rule. After a woman gets married, she no longer participates in the religious rituals of her own clan, but instead practices the religious rituals of her husband's clan.

9. The right to admit outsiders into the clan should be realized through family acceptance, with a public ceremony and limited to exceptional circumstances.

10. The right to elect and remove chiefs.

1. The permanent authority is the council, which was probably initially composed of the chiefs of each clan. Later, when there were too many people, some people were selected. This created an opportunity to develop and strengthen the aristocratic elements. The final decision on all important questions was made by the Council, which, with the establishment of the State, became the Senate.

2. People’s Assembly. Convened by a council to settle important matters; every man could speak. The decision was made to pass with a show of hands or cheers. The People's Assembly is the highest power.

3. Military chief (Bacyrus).

By this the Athenians went a step further than any of the native peoples of America: the mere confederacy of neighboring tribes was replaced by the fusion of these tribes into a single people.

This was the first step towards the destruction of the gentile system, which was the first step towards later allowing people who did not belong to any tribe and who had always been outside the Athenian gentile system to become citizens.

No difference in rights between classes is provided for. But its great significance lies in showing us new and quietly developing social elements.

1. The custom of having members of certain families hold clan public offices has become the indisputable right of these families to hold public offices; these families, who were already powerful due to their wealth, began to unite into a unique form outside their own clans. The privileged class; and the nascent state sanctified this act of occupation.

2. The division of labor between peasants and craftsmen has become so strong that the former divisions of clans and tribes are no longer the most important in terms of social significance.

3. Declared the irreconcilable opposition between clan society and the state; the original attempt to establish a state was to destroy the ties between clans. The method was to divide the members of each clan into privileged and non-privileged people, and divide the non-privileged ones into The workers were divided into two classes according to their occupations, thus pitting them against each other.

When producers no longer consume direct products but transfer them through exchange, they lose the right to control their products. They no longer know what will happen to the product, and so the possibility arises that the product will one day be used against the producer, exploiting and oppressing the producer.

Therefore, no matter which society does not abolish exchange between individual individuals, it cannot long maintain control over its own production and control over the social effects of its own production process.

With the further development of industry and exchange, the division of labor between the various branches of production - agriculture, handicrafts (including numerous industries), commerce, navigation, etc. - became increasingly fully developed; the inhabitants were now divided into considerable divisions according to their occupations. Stable groups; each group has many common interests. Such interests have no room for existence within the clan or phratry, so new public offices need to be created to deal with such interests.

The number of slaves increased, and the clan system initially had no slavery and no means of control. The clan system did not give them rights or protect the outsiders attracted by trade.

New groups resulting from the division of labor created new agencies to protect their rights and interests; public offices were established.

First a military force is needed. First, it created a public right that was no longer directly equivalent to the armed whole people; second, it was the first time that people were divided for public purposes not according to kinship groups but according to common living areas.

Tribe remained the basis, the only aspect that the new national organization took over from the old system.

Citizens are divided into four classes according to their real estate and income, among which people with little or no real estate belong to the fourth class. (divided by private property)

All public offices can only be held by people from the three upper classes. The fourth class only has the right to speak and vote at the People's Assembly, but all officials are elected here, officials report their work here, and laws are made here. The fourth class occupies most.

The privileges of the nobility were renewed partly in the form of privileges of wealth; but the people retained the right to decide.

The four classes are the basis of the new military organization. The first two were cavalry, the third hoplite, and the fourth light infantry or navy.

Usury in the countryside, which had prevailed in pre-Solonian times, and the unlimited concentration of landed property, were restrained.

Chattel, wealth consisting of money, slaves, and merchant ships, increased day by day. However, at this time it was no longer used solely as a means of purchasing real estate, as it had been in the early days of narrow vision. It has become an end in itself.

Forget about tribes and divide citizens only by the area of ​​their residence. What is decisive is no longer the nationality of the blood group, but only the area where they live; what needs to be divided now is not the people, but the region; politically, the residents have become simple appendages of the region. (A prototype of the self-governing American town district. The unit in which the emerging state in Athens began was precisely the same unit in which the modern state in its highest stage of development completed.)

The Athenian state was organized step by step, with the last level of management power belonging to the People's Assembly, in which every Athenian citizen could participate and enjoy the right to vote; in addition, there were consuls and other officials in charge of various administrative departments and judicial affairs. There was no top official with overall executive power in Athens.

At that time, Athens had only a national army and a fleet provided directly by the people, which were used to defend against foreign enemies and suppress the slaves, who at that time accounted for the vast majority of the population. For citizens, this public right initially existed only as a police force.

The police is as old as the state, and the Athenians founded the police when they founded their state.

The police were composed of slaves, so free Athenians considered the police position to be very menial and would rather be arrested than do such work. This was still the old clan concept. The young nation did not yet enjoy sufficient moral prestige to lend respectability to a profession which must have been considered abject by the members of the older clans.

Production takes place within extremely narrow limits, but the product is entirely at the disposal of the producer. This was a great advantage of production in barbaric times, which was lost with the advent of civilization. It will be the task of the next few generations to recapture this superiority, but on the basis of the powerful dominion over nature that man has acquired today and the free association that is possible today.

All revolutions hitherto have been revolutions in order to protect one type of property and to oppose another type of property. They cannot protect one form of property without infringing upon another form of property.

All so-called political revolutions, from the first to the last, are carried out to protect some kind of property, and they are all carried out by confiscating (or also called stealing) another kind of property. So there is no doubt that private property has survived for 2,500 years only because of the infringement of property rights.

Defining political rights based on property is not an indispensable method for the country. Although this approach has played a large role in the history of national institutions, many countries, and it happens to be the most developed countries, do not need it.

As time goes by, and the people tolerate this desire, this desire becomes an actual right.

Its most ancient laws, which have survived to this day, give us a glimpse of the gens which is still full of vitality; in Ireland, even to this day, after the English have violently destroyed the gens, it still exists at least instinctively in the consciousness of the people. ; in Scotland, where it was in its heyday in the middle of the last century, it was only eliminated here by the arms, legislation, and courts of the English.

Ancient Welsh law, drawn up centuries before Wales was conquered by the English, at least as late as the 11th century, also indicates the practice of whole villages working together (a rare remnant of a widespread earlier custom), with each family having its own The land cultivated by oneself is cultivated jointly with another piece of land, and the harvest is distributed. This is similar to Ireland and England. This rural commune is a kind of clan or branch of a clan.

In the 11th century, monogamy had not yet been replaced by monogamy.

Irish peasants were often divided into various gangs, seemingly with no purpose other than to engage in their beloved grand brawls with each other. This is the artificial resurrection of the exterminated clan, a substitute produced after the clan's demise. This substitute proves in a special way the continued existence of the clan instinct passed down.

In Scotland, the gentile system perished with the suppression of the 1745 uprising.

Before the great migration of ethnic groups, there was no doubt that they were organized into clans.

Living separately according to clan and kinship relationships. Battle formations were also organized according to clan organization.

Some people even believe that the blood relationship between uncle and nephew is more sacred and closer than the blood relationship between father and son. A living remnant of the original gens, organized according to matriarchy, and regarded as something peculiarly German.

By the time of Tacitus, matriarchy had given way to patriarchy. The father's estate is inherited by his children, or if there are no children, by his brothers and uncles. The fact that the mother's brothers are allowed to participate in inheritance is related to the preservation of previous customs (remnants of matriarchy), which also proves that patriarchy was still very young at that time.

Another remnant of matriarchy is the German respect for women. Girls from noble families were considered the most reliable hostages. They believed that women embodied something divine and prophetic, and listened to women even on the most important matters. The wife's dominance in the home seemed undisputed.

The form of marriage is a dual system that is gradually approaching monogamy. This was not strictly monogamy, allowing prominent figures to practice polygamy. The chastity of girls is generally strictly observed. The marriage bond is unbreakable and only adultery by the wife is grounds for divorce.

The enemy relationship between father or relatives is inherited as a friendship relationship, and the compensation used to replace the blood family's revenge and atone for murder or wounding is inherited.

Farmland is replaced (or reallocated) once a year, while still leaving sufficient common land.

The patriarchal family commune is an intermediate stage between the matriarchal communal family and the modern isolated family. Although it is not popular everywhere, it is very popular.

The settlements of the Germans in the lands they occupied in Roman times, and later in the lands they wrested from the Romans, consisted not of villages but of extended family communes consisting of For generations, they cultivated the corresponding areas and used the surrounding wasteland as a common mark with their neighbors.

The commune cultivated another area each year, leaving the previous year's farmland fallow or completely abandoned. Since the population is sparse, there is always a lot of wasteland, so any disputes over real estate are unnecessary. Only after centuries, when the number of family members became so large that joint management became impossible under the production conditions of the time, did this kind of family commune disintegrate; The distribution was carried out among the individual farmers that were being formed in the future. This distribution was temporary at first and then became permanent. As for the forests, pastures and waters, they remained public.

Parallel to the clan system, a private group was formed that engaged in war independently. This is the retinue team, which has become a regular group. The military leader who has gained a reputation gathers around himself a band of predatory young men who must be personally loyal to him and he to them. The leader fed and rewarded them, and organized them into hierarchies; for small-scale campaigns, they served as guards and ready-to-fight troops; for large-scale campaigns, they were a ready-made officer corps.

The retinue was the beginning of the decline of people's freedom in ancient times. First, they promoted the emergence of kingship; second, only through constant wars and robberies could they be knitted together. Plunder became the purpose.

The shame and curse of the Germans, the mercenary system, has begun to take shape here. After the conquest of the Roman Empire, this retinue of the kings, together with the court servants of non-free and Roman origin, became the second major component of the later nobility.

Generally speaking, among the German tribes united into a nation, there were also developed institutions like those of the Greeks in the heroic age and the Romans in the so-called royal age, namely, the people's assembly, the council of gentile chiefs and the people who were trying to obtain real royal power. military chief. This is the most developed system that can generally be achieved under the clan system; it is a typical system in the advanced stage of barbaric times. The end of the gentile system came as soon as society exceeded the limits within which this system applied; it was blown up and replaced by the state.

For the same fault, either atonement or revenge is required, but not both.

Wherever Greek offered no resistance, all national languages ​​had to give way to the ruined Latin; all national distinctions disappeared, Gauls, Iberians, Ligurians, Norics. They no longer exist, they have all become Romans.

Roman administration and Roman law everywhere destroyed the ancient kinship communities, destroying with them the last vestiges of local and national autonomy. The new Roman citizenship offered no compensation; it did not express any nationality, but only the lack of it.

A large number of people in a vast territory were united by only one tie, the Roman state, which in the course of time became their most ferocious enemy and oppressor.

The Roman state became a huge, complex machine designed to extract the blood of its subjects. Taxation, state corvee, and all kinds of servitude and renting drove the people increasingly into the abyss of poverty; extortion by local officials, tax collectors, and soldiers increased the oppression to an intolerable level.

It bases its right to exist on maintaining order internally and defending against barbarians externally; however, its order is worse than the worst disorder. It uses the pretext of protecting citizens to defend themselves against barbarians, while citizens treat barbarians as slaves. Pray for a savior.

General impoverishment, the decline of commerce, handicrafts and arts, depopulation, urban decay, agriculture retreating to a lower level - this was the final result of the Roman world domination.

Slavery in classical antiquity is obsolete. The market for its products had disappeared, and the vast production of the imperial boom had shrunk to small agriculture and small handicrafts, neither of which could accommodate large numbers of slaves. Only the domestic slaves of the rich and the slaves who displayed their luxury had room for existence in society.

At the same time, slavery, which is dying day by day, can still make people think that all productive labor is the work of slaves, and it is beneath their status to let free Romans do it, and now everyone is such a free Roman.

Here the Roman world was in dire straits: slavery was economically impossible, and the labor of freemen was morally despised. The former can no longer serve as the basic form of social production, while the latter cannot yet become this form. Only a complete revolution can escape this desperate situation.

The German barbarians liberated the Romans from their own country, and to this end they seized two-thirds of all the Roman lands and distributed them among their own people. This distribution was carried out according to the clan system.

As the German nations became masters of the Roman provinces, they had to organize and manage the conquered areas. However, they could neither absorb large numbers of Romans into gentile groups nor rule them through gentile groups.

A substitute had to be installed in place of the Roman state to lead the Roman local administration, which at first mostly continued to exist, and this substitute could only be another kind of state.

Due to the vastness of the kingdom, it could no longer be managed by the old clan system; the council of clan chiefs could no longer be convened, if it had not disappeared long ago, and was soon replaced by the king's fixed confidants; the old people The conference continued to exist as a show, but increasingly it became purely a meeting of lower-level military chiefs and upstarts.

The free peasants who owned the land, that is, the main body of the Franks, just like the Roman peasants at the end of the previous republic, were exhausted, impoverished and decayed due to years of civil wars and wars of conquest, especially those under Charlemagne.

Not only is it weak and incompetent externally, but the internal social order (or rather, social disorder) is almost the same. The free Frankish peasants found themselves in the same situation as their predecessors, the Roman slave peasants. They were bankrupted by war and plunder, and had to beg for protection from the nouveau riche or the church, for the king was too weak to protect them; but this protection came at a high price.

Fifty years after the death of Charlemagne, the Frankish Kingdom prostrated at the feet of the Normans without resistance, just as the Roman Empire prostrated at the feet of the Franks 400 years ago. The main body of residents seems to have completely returned to the original situation after 400 years.

This proves two points: first, the social differentiation and property distribution of the Roman Empire during the decline period were completely compatible with the agricultural and industrial production levels at that time, and were therefore inevitable; second, this production level would not change for the next 400 years. There was no fundamental decline or rise during the years, so the same distribution of property and the same class of residents were reborn with the same necessity.

What has moved on over the past 400 years is that the people who make up the classes have changed. Slavery in classical antiquity has disappeared; bankrupt, poor, free people who regard labor as a slave and despicable thing have disappeared.

The social classes of the ninth century were formed not in the collapse of a dying civilization but in the throes of the birth of a new civilization. The new generation, whether masters or servants, is already an adult generation compared with their Roman predecessors. For their Roman predecessors, the relationship between powerful landowners and servile peasants was nothing like the ancient world of classical antiquity. The declining form with no way out is now the starting point of new development for the new generation.

It is not their special national characteristics that make Europe rejuvenated by the Germans, but only their barbarism and their clan system. Their individual talent and bravery, their sense of liberty, their democratic instinct to regard all public matters as their own, in short, all the qualities that the Romans had lost which alone could have emerged from the sludge of the Roman world. Create a new country and cultivate a new nation.

Everything that the Germans breathed into the Roman world that was vital and life-giving was a product of barbarism. Indeed, only barbarians can rejuvenate a world struggling with a dying civilization. They were able to develop and make the milder form of subordination already practiced in their native land, into which slavery was increasingly transformed in the Roman Empire, the only form of subordination which , providing the enslaved with a means of their own gradual emancipation as a class (and providing the cultivators with a means of collective and gradual emancipation), and therefore greatly outperformed slavery—in which Under this situation, only a single individual could be emancipated immediately without going through a transitional state (in ancient times, there was no such thing as a victorious uprising to eliminate slavery), while the serfs in the Middle Ages actually gradually achieved their own emancipation as a class.

Economically: 1. The emergence of metal currency, thus the emergence of money capital, interest and usury; 2. The emergence of businessmen as an intermediate class among producers; 3. The emergence of private ownership of land and mortgages; 4. The emergence of property owners as appropriators slave labor as the dominant form of production.

In addition: 1. Fixing the opposition between city and country as the basis for the division of labor in the entire society; 2. Implementing a will system whereby owners can handle their property even after death.

The family forms that adapted to this and subsequently established their dominance thoroughly were monogamy, men's dominance over women, and the individual family as a socioeconomic unit.

Progress now proceeds irresistibly, less discontinuously, and more rapidly.

Contingency is only one pole of interdependence; its other pole is called necessity. In nature, which also seems to be dominated by contingency, we have long confirmed that in every field, there is an inherent necessity and regularity to realize itself in this contingency.

The more a social activity, a series of social processes, is beyond people's conscious control, beyond their control, and the more it appears to be at the mercy of pure contingency, the more its inherent internal laws are based on natural inevitability. To realize itself in this contingency.