cultural and social representation

Science is often based on personal values

Psychological counselors’ advice is also based on personal values

Should we abandon science because it is subjective?

For example: Rich people live longer, and conversely, people who live longer may accumulate more wealth and become richer.

Advantages: Often uses real-life situations

Disadvantage: Cause and effect are often ambiguous

representativeness of sample

order of questions

Preparation of answer options

question wording

Hurt and deception

Minimize the impact of required features

Advantages: Causal relationships can be explored by controlling variables and random assignment

Disadvantages: Typically used in lab scenarios

Laboratory experiments simply deepen our understanding of life phenomena

Promotion needs to be cautious

Different groups of people may have different opinions, but when the opinions constitute similar

Information related to me is processed faster and recalled faster

self-schema

possible self

social identity

social comparison

success and failure

What others say

individualism vs. collectivism

Our interpretations of our feelings and performance are often wrong

To predict your future, it's best to think about your past

Predicting other people's behavior is often more accurate than predicting one's own

Impact bias: We often overestimate the lasting impact of emotional time

People often overlook the speed and power of the psychological immune system

We understand the results of thinking better than the process of thinking

The psychology that governs our social behavior is very different from explaining our mental processes.

Dual attitudes: Implicit attitudes often differ from explicit attitudes that are under conscious control

Feel how capable you are of doing something

The primary source of self-efficacy is symmetry with your experience of success

Internal locus of control: Believing that one’s own destiny is under one’s control

External locus of control: Belief that one's own destiny is beyond control

Compared with external control, people with internal control are more likely to complete challenges.

learned helplessness

self-determination

People with high self-esteem are more likely to use self-protective attributions to justify failures

The significance of maintaining or enhancing self-esteem motivation

People with low self-esteem are at greater risk for behavioral misconduct, such as drug abuse, depression, etc.

People with high self-esteem may respond with aggressive behavior when their self-esteem is threatened.

Self-control is far more valuable than self-respect

Are people with inflated egos hiding low self-esteem?

People who build their self-esteem internally have higher levels of happiness

Attribute success to yourself

Failure is attributed to uncontrollable external factors

Most people feel they are better than average

Blind optimism often leads to accidents

Optimism can enhance individual self-efficacy

Growth requires a combination of pessimism and optimism

false universality

false uniqueness

We seek self-validation

Desire for validation of self-concept

Desire to improve self-image

Maintain and enhance self-esteem

People whose self-esteem has just been hit are more likely to belittle others

When self-esteem is threatened, self-protective defense mechanisms may be activated

The adaptive and maladaptive nature of self-serving bias

Bacon: Humility is just a "trick to get the limelight."

Humility reduces stress and reduces the negative publicity that comes with failure.

Humility and self-serving bias

humility situation

motivation

Way

case

self-presentation definition

self-monitoring

culture of humility

character attribution

situational attribution

Determine the intentions of others through their actions

method

result

When explaining the behavior of others, internal attributions are often overestimated and external attributions are underestimated.

Believe that other people's behavior directly reflects their internal characteristics and ignore the situation

Smart people are more likely to make attribution errors

The difference between actors and observers

Focus on perspective bias

Opinions change all the time

East Asian Culture: Dispositional Attribution Situations

Western culture: attribution within

Behavior is a corresponding response to inner tendencies

explain opposing viewpoints

When memories are fuzzy, the feeling of the moment will dominate and reconstruct our memories

People often reconstruct the past to fit our present perspective

When our perspective is refined, we will recall our past as more different from our present.

misleading information effect

start up

Thinking is mostly controlled by automatic intuition, and a small part is controlled (rational)

Intuition enables us to react quickly and effectively

Illusory thinking

Intuition is not as sharp as researchers think

Judgment with hindsight

People tend to be overconfident in their own judgments

Insufficient ability will promote the tendency of overconfidence

People tend to recall their bad judgments at moments when they were almost completely right

People tend to look for information that supports their beliefs

We would rather confirm something than falsify it

Get used to seeking, eliciting and recalling feedback that validates you

Receive instant feedback

Determine the reasons for possible errors (falsification)

Overconfidence is harmful, but confidence based on reality makes sense

Judgment based on typicality

People often judge things based on ready-made examples

Causes anecdotes to attract more attention & perceived risk does not match actual risk

Vivid events are perceived as easier to occur than events that are more difficult to visualize

Events that are easy to imagine can easily affect our experience of frustration, regret, and relief

When you are just a little short of achieving your goal or fail, it is more likely to cause a sense of regret or luck of "if xxx, then..."

Illusion related

illusion of control

emotions and judgment

Social beliefs and judgments have a certain impact on us

Teacher expectations affect student performance

Getting what we expect from others

We can achieve our expected results to some extent

Love helps create imagined reality

Behavioral corroboration

Students' attitudes toward cheating have no bearing on their actual cheating behavior

Self-described views of race have little correlation with real-life behavior

Used to eliminate influencing factors of attitude

For example, when facing tobacco dealers, people sometimes express their disapproval in private

People becoming self-aware can strengthen the consistency of their words and deeds

People will gradually adapt to the role and change their behavior as if they were in the situation

Price it low first, and then bargain when the contract is about to be processed. Most customers will buy at the higher price.

For those who sign the emergency donation petition, the donation rate will be increased by 2 times.

Cruel behavior will erode the perpetrator's heart

Moral behavior also shapes the actor's heart

Racial political behavior shapes social consciousness

Positive behavior towards others increases liking of that person

Behavioral effects on attitudes may be used by political campaigns

The fewer external reasons we have for our misbehavior, the more responsibility we feel for it, the more discomfort and attitude changes we experience.

The effect of attitude-compliance behavior is strongest when you have the right to choose or when you can meet the consequences of your behavior.

When we make a decision, we overestimate what we choose and underestimate what we give up.

Our actions can trigger certain emotions

Facial expressions influence our attitudes

Another explanation for the lack of justification effect

cognitive dissonance theory

theory of perception

It doesn't work if people have previously had clear and consistent attitudes about something

Natural selection, survival of the fittest

Emphasize that humans have common attributes

Most human behavior is influenced by society

Cultural diversity exists everywhere in life

All cultures have their own interpretations of appropriate behavior

The best way to understand social norms is to enter another cultural environment

Different cultures and regions have different understandings of private space

Ability to learn and adapt

common norms

People with higher status have higher self-efficacy

A lower role reduces an individual's sense of self-efficacy

Men tend to adopt a directive leadership style

Women tend to take a democratizing approach

Most of the characteristics assigned to men are characteristics of people of higher social status

Men are more pursuing “stimulation”

Women long for tenderness, like idol dramas

Women’s reproductive opportunities are precious, and they will be more careful about men’s physical health and resource status.

Men need to compete for women with stronger reproductive abilities to help them carry on their family lineage.

Believe that the explanations of the evolutionary school are based on facts and are prone to bias.

Evolutionary schools cannot explain the phenomenon of culture

Humans have a strong ability to adapt

Genetic influence accounts for 50%

Family influence accounts for 0-10%

Peer influence accounts for 40-50%

Parent group helps kids choose schools that impact them

Children are influenced by children older than themselves, and so on, up to those who are the same age as their parents

Men are genetically determined to be more aggressive, while cultural environment reinforces their aggression

Early days

adult

low fertility rate

Masculine traits become less important in high status

Anti-Discrimination Policy & Talent Standards

........

How the two interact

In reality, the occurrence of certain things will lead to the probability of similar things happening

Will harm the physical and mental condition of the subjects

Milgram: Not much

The closer the emotional distance to the victim, the lower the compliance rate

Spatial proximity of the order giver increases obedience rates

The higher the legitimacy of the authority, the higher the obedience.

Reputation of authority

Conformity can sometimes be positive

When external influences are greater than inner beliefs, attitudes cannot determine behavior

Threshold effect: gradual increase in shock intensity in electric shock experiments

Submission breeds acceptance

People cannot ignore the binding force of social norms

Social situations often cause good people to do bad things

Evil is more easily carried out when work is spread out

Not all people who engage in evil deeds are evil by nature

For example: a few people who gave different answers

threshold effect

When situational influence is weak, personality becomes prominent

When situational influence is great, personality is not highlighted

In the same situation, when personality differences are large, personality has a greater impact

In different situations and similar personalities, personality has little impact

Conformity is generally low in the Western world, which advocates individualism

Asian regions, such as Japan, are more inclined to follow the herd

sleeper effect

perceived expertise

perceived dependability

attraction

Preference

People with high levels of education and critical thinking skills are more likely to accept rational persuasion

People with low levels of education and critical thinking skills are more likely to accept emotional persuasion

A good mood can enhance persuasion

When you are in a good mood, you tend to rely on peripheral cues

When in a bad mood, tend to rely on central avenues of rational thought

Information can work by triggering negative emotions

The more fearful someone is about something, the more they respond to it

Real world applications

When fears are associated with pleasant events, the consequences usually do not affect behavioral changes.

When using the fear effect, add solutions to improve the effect

When the credibility of the information is high, a widely different stance will cause greater changes in the recipients of the information.

Active participants (people who think seriously) can accept smaller differences, and when the differences are larger, the changes will be smaller.

People who initially agreed were more persuasive when receiving unilateral persuasion

People who initially objected became more convincing when they received persuasion from both sides.

The information that appears first is the most convincing

Conditions for the occurrence of recency effect

Passive acceptance often fails to change people's attitudes

But being frozen can sometimes have an effect.

Anything that enhances fluency helps enhance credibility

Passive persuasion becomes less influential as idea familiarity and importance increase

For people, the most important influence comes from face-to-face communication rather than the media

The power of media cannot be underestimated

As the difficulty of understanding the information decreases, the persuasiveness of simple information increases; the opposite is true for complex information.

Attitudes developed in youth (teens and twenties) may remain with them throughout life

Forewarning allows active participants to build defenses against persuasive messages

Being distracted increases the chance of being persuaded

Inactive participants use peripheral cues

Stimulating thinking can make a powerful message more persuasive

Some rituals and public lobbying strengthen the believers' sense of identity

Let believers make small sacrifices first and then gradually improve

Especially for those who are in decline, it is very warm

Increase recognition and define facts

Oppose punishment of heretics and maintain internal consistency

Stress and emotional arousal make people pay more attention to peripheral pathways

Provide supportive, trusting social support

Have expertise and hope

Have unique ideas and beliefs

There are a series of rituals and learning experiences

Everyone in society is subtly persuaded

Persuasion is neither good nor bad in nature, it depends on its purpose

Mild counterarguments to the views of those with strong opinions will make them more convinced of their views

The intensity of the challenge needs to be moderate so as not to overturn the original views.

Provoking a mild counterargument to a point in advance can make it easier for people to resist persuasion

“Poisonous parasite” rebuttal

boycott cult

boycott smoking

When the persuasion effect is not good, it is better to use less than too much, because it will make the listener more hard-hearted.

Improve performance on simple tasks (correct answers are dominant responses)

Lower performance on complex tasks (wrong answers are dominant responses)

We care about other people’s opinions

Conflict between attention to others and attention tasks

Sometimes mere presence can be arousing

Group situations reduce individuals’ evaluative concerns

Group situations provide anonymity and diffuse responsibility

In a group, individual efforts are not evaluated

When tasks are challenging and attractive, group slackness decreases

Laxness is reduced when the group is familiar with and recognized by each other

Looseness is relatively low in collectivism

diminished self-awareness

Increased group consciousness

Responds easily to situational cues

Actively seek deindividualized group behavior

Be more cautious in certain situations

Research confirms the existence of group polarization

Research methods

Group polarization in everyday life

People are ignorant

group pressure

Responsibility allocation

cultural background

group leader

Overestimating the power and power of groups

ideas converge

intra-group pressure

lead to wrong decisions

inhibit innovation

There are situations where groupthink does not occur

Good group communication processes can also lead to bad decisions

fair environment

Encourage critical evaluation

Before group discussion, discuss in groups

Criticism from outsiders is welcome

Before deciding on the plan, conduct a free speech meeting

Sometimes, group decisions are smarter

Use computer communication for brainstorming to improve members' innovation

Ways to Facilitate Brainstorming

Minorities that stand firm are more influential

Being a minority requires suffering the pain of being boycotted

Minority dissent can trigger members to think and make better decisions

Confident people are more consistent and persistent

When it comes to discussing ideas, the minority's assertive behavior can make it more influential

A vocal minority can break the illusion of unanimity

Among groups that defect, minorities are the most influential

leadership type

Characteristics of Influential Leaders

Prejudice reduced, but still present

The greatest biases occur in the most intimate social spheres

Modern forms of prejudice are replacing overt prejudice

Modern Prejudice in Racial Sensitivity: Overreaction to Ethnic Minorities

Spontaneous prejudicial behavior influenced by childhood experiences

Men are more rational, women are more emotional, etc...

Gender stereotypes may reflect innate, stable essential characteristics

Female stereotypes are sometimes more popular

Although prejudice against women decreases, modern biases persist

Pay attention to and maintain a sense of class

People with an authoritative personality focus on power status, obey superiors, and discriminate against subordinates and aliens.

Religion and bigotry depend on how religiosity is defined

Prejudicial societies promote the stability of prejudice

Conformity also maintains gender differences

If prejudice is not rooted in personality, prejudice will change over time

There are three times more men than women in children’s books

Books describe men as braver and women as more emotional

.............

The stupidity of black slaves in movies

black extreme rap

.............

categorization behavior

identification behavior

Comparative behavior

Respect and pride can be found in groups

Ingroup bias is an example of people seeking a positive self-concept

When the group is small, it is easier to exhibit in-group behavior

Even randomly assembled groups can produce in-group behavior

The more attention one attaches to a group, the more prejudice one will have against other groups when threatened.

The causes of in-group bias

Social status

self-focused

need to belong

Bias is an automated biased response

Breaking habitual biases requires strong intrinsic motivation

Stereotypes are a by-product of the psychological mechanics of simplifying a complex world

Automatic categorization

perceived similarities and differences

unique person

Vivid cases

unusual case

Favorite bias

open world phenomenon

The occurrence of stereotype effect will strengthen the inherent prejudice. If there are exceptions, they tend to be explained as special circumstances.

self-fulfillment of stereotypes

regrouping

Discrimination affects the victim’s original thinking

self-validation of social beliefs

Media can stimulate stereotype threat

The impact of stereotype threat

When people evaluate individuals, they tend to be more positive (positive means thinking seriously) than when they evaluate groups composed of these individuals.

Once you know someone, any stereotypes about them will have minimal impact

Strong stereotypes are not trivial

Stereotypes distort cognitive interpretation and memory

Two major points of view

Instinct theory fails to explain the diversity of aggressive behavior across individuals and cultures

Aggressive behavior does have an adaptive effect in specific scenarios in the ancient ancestors' time. For example, the more aggressive the behavior, the more social status and reproductive opportunities.

Amygdala electroshock experiment

Abnormal brain region

Genes influence neurological susceptibility to violence

Innate factors and acquired factors influence each other

effects of alcohol

Effects of Testosterone

Neurological serotonin deficiency

Frustration triggers anger, and aggressive behavior is a state of emotional readiness. Aggressive behavior is easily triggered after receiving attack cues.

Anger arises when our goals are thwarted

Frustration has nothing to do with deprivation

Frustration stems from the sense of gap between expectations and reality

Cause anger and negative emotions

Aggressive behavior is a habit performed in order to obtain a specific reward

Observing negative behavior triggers similar behavior

Source of influence

make people more irritable

Enhance emotional arousal and hostility

Happier when you are happy

Anger when angry

Make people think that reality is like sexual literary situations

The spread of pornography has increased rape rates

Increased punitive behavior against women

Anti-corruption: Watching sexual violence videos has negative effects

Research on TV viewing and behavior

An experimental study of watching television

The influence of television on the mind

children's video games

The impact of video games on children

Groups increase aggression through diffusion of responsibility

Social contagion, groups can amplify aggressive tendencies

People who are easily influenced by groups

Group interaction can increase an individual's aggressive behavior

Sandbagging makes you more likely to get angry

communication

Set reasonable expectations

Corporal punishment is counterproductive

Reinforce expectations instead of intensify punishment

control control tool enforcement

Control of offensive toys and media, etc.

Proximity makes communication cheaper and easier

Anticipation of a relationship can trigger liking

Appropriate amount of exposure can improve people's evaluation of them

Adaptability of the exposure effect: Helps us distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar (unsafe) things

We present ourselves in more common ways

People tend to like people who match their own characteristics, including education, appearance, etc.

Compensation phenomenon, good-looking women match high-income men

Beautiful is good

self-fulfillment of stereotypes

Appearance is more important for first impression

Disadvantages of physical attractiveness

Perfect average is most attractive

evolution and attraction

social comparison

lover's attraction

The higher the similarity between partners, the happier they are and the less likely they are to separate

Similarity generates likes

Dissimilarity leads to dislike

Does opposition cause attraction?

When you learn that someone likes you, Enter produces a reciprocal emotion

People are more likely to grasp negative information and react violently to negative information.

attribution

self-esteem and attraction

gain respect from others

rewards in relationships

Passionate love: deep and passionate love

Partner love: warm and stable love

attachment

fair

self-disclosure

divorce

separation process

Altruism: voluntary behavior that benefits others without any obvious benefit to oneself.

Egoism: The view that self-interest drives all behavior.

social exchange

guilt

negative mood

positive mood

norm of reciprocity

Social Responsibility Code

Genes make people willing to help and care for related people

Kin selection: people favor those with whom they share genes

Kin protection also determines racial in-group preferences

Genetic self-interest predicts reciprocal behavior in humans

Help is rewarded

Explanation of altruistic behavior under reciprocity

bystanders distracted

The interpretation of fuzzy time determines people's behavior

People often use the behavior of others as clues to the facts

bystander effect

situational factors

Compassion fatigue and sensory overload limit empathic sensitivity

Connected groups provide more help than isolated individuals

Protect subjects

Improving people's lives through discovery impact

Observing other people’s helping behavior increases the chance of helping others

Less time pressure and more willing to help others

Easier to empathize with people who are similar to us and willing to help others

People with higher positive emotionality, empathy and self-efficacy are more likely to help others

People with high self-monitors are willing to help others if they believe they will be rewarded for helping them

Men are more willing to help when there is an emergency or dangerous situation

Religious people engage in more volunteer and donation work

Describing emergency situations more clearly can help motivate

Increase your sense of responsibility

face-saving effect

Make a request so small that the other person cannot refuse

Label people helpful

Improve moral inclusiveness and treat everyone's help equally

Attributing something intrinsic can make people more willing to help others

Inappropriate rewards undermine intrinsic motivation for helping behavior

The threshold effect prompts people to make a small promise to help first

Popularization of social psychology findings could promote introspection and improve helping behavior

prisoner's dilemma conflict

tragic conflict in the commons

appropriate controls

Reduce the size of the group

communicate

Change incentives

Promote altruistic norms

In conflicts, both sides have very consistent misunderstandings about beautifying themselves and vilifying the other.

Misunderstandings are self-fulfilling

In conflict, both sides exaggerate their differences

Black and white, simple and stereotyped thinking

Misunderstandings change as conflicts change

Racial discrimination still exists

Increased exposure predicts reductions in prejudice

friendship

equal status contact

International students are discriminated against, which will make international students unite

Sometimes, countries deliberately create enemies to enhance national cohesion

Reconciliation will be facilitated by both parties in conflict accomplishing super goals together

If the super goal is not achieved, the conflict may worsen

Multiethnic study groups have better racial attitudes

Competition between groups can bring closer relationships among group members

Sometimes, hard bargaining can get the other party to make concessions

Sometimes, intense haggling can bring a negotiation to a standstill and damage both parties.

Mediators turn the parties’ zero-sum thinking into win-win thinking

Use restrained communication to eliminate misunderstandings

Conflict resolution training can change people’s attitudes towards conflict resolution

Trust is the key to communication

The mediator’s method of mediating between conflicting parties

Reduce tension gradually, reciprocally, and proactively, and strive to reverse conflict by triggering reciprocal de-escalation.

step

Application in reality

Others' positive or negative evaluations of oneself will have a positive or negative promoting effect respectively.

For example, a person's future performance is more accurate based on past performance.

Depressed people are usually depressed realism

Depressed people more often display a negative explanatory style

Depressive mood leads to negative thinking

Negative thinking leads to depression

Modern society emphasizes personal realization and devalues ​​marriage and family life.

work-related mobility

Feeling lonely is a state of feeling excluded from a group

Long-term loneliness makes it easy not only to have negative perceptions of oneself, but also to have negative perceptions of others.

Loneliness, depression, and shyness sometimes reinforce each other

Loneliness can also lead to a vicious cycle

social anxiety

Self-protection under anxiety, such as talking less and being cautious, sometimes leads to a bad impression

Shy and anxious people tend to overestimate the extent to which others pay attention to and evaluate them, thereby worsening anxiety and shyness

Anxious and shy people sometimes use anxiety and shyness as an excuse for failure to protect themselves.

Be aware of symptoms

explain symptoms

socially constructed diseases

Do I need treatment?

Negative emotions, such as depression, increase the risk of disease

stress and illness

Attributional style and illness

For example, shy people develop communication skills and develop better perceptions

Changing negative attributions can better promote the formation of positive emotions

Guide patients to change their attitudes and behaviors through central persuasion

People who actively cope with psychological problems, such as actively talking about them, have fewer health problems than those who suppress their pain.

Poverty leads to many problems such as malnutrition and health care problems, making people in poverty have shorter life spans.

Inequality also shortens people’s lifespan

Friendships foster self-esteem and promote happiness

Most people who are attached are happier than those who are not

Marital satisfaction is a better predictor of people's happiness than satisfaction with work, income, etc.

Why marriage promotes happiness

For example, when identifying in a queue, if the interviewer agrees with the witness's choice, the witness will strengthen his confidence in his choice.

Give witnesses ample, uninterrupted time to report what they have recalled

Use provocative questions to guide witnesses’ recollections

Interviewers avoid asking questions with prior assumptions

Reminder that suspects are not necessarily in the queue

Make simple yes-or-no judgments one-on-one

Interviewers avoid feedback with witnesses

Guide juries in analyzing the conditions under which eyewitness accounts are credible

Physically attractive defendants are less likely to be convicted and receive lighter sentences

Jurors are more sympathetic when the defendant is similar to the juror

The quality of the evidence is more important than the bias of individual jurors

Different people have different understandings of legal standard terms, which affects judgment

People who are emotional are more likely to make premature judgments and affect subsequent interpretation of information.

Often the judge's abstract expressions are no match for the jurors' imaginary picture of the crime.

Pure numbers must be supported by a credible plot

The first step is to understand how juries misinterpret messages conveyed by judges.

The second step is to provide the jury with the court text to prevent them from processing the information from memory alone.

The third step is to design and test a more effective and clear way of conveying information.

Groups can remove bias and recall more interrogation information

support

be opposed to

The birth rate is falling, but the base is still large

Yes

Relative wealth does predict greater happiness than extreme poverty

Money doesn't make people happier

Economic growth has not led to an increase in happiness, but has increased depression

Economic growth in developed countries has not brought about an obvious increase in public confidence.

People who are more motivated by wealth and career success may have lower levels of happiness.

People who pursue intimacy, personal growth, and social causes experience a higher quality of life

People with great wealth experience fewer positive emotions

People's success, failure, and satisfaction are all relative to the previous state.

When people are immersed in the satisfaction brought by an achievement, it quickly fades and is eventually replaced by apathy and a higher level of effort.

Parkinson's Second Law: Expenditures grow to match rising incomes

In the pursuit of success, people often compare themselves with their peers who are at or above their own level.

When people compare themselves to very wealthy people, their perceptions tend to be distorted and they experience dissatisfaction

Looking for spiritual harbor

The pursuit of deeper, more meaningful relationships

close supportive relationship

group beliefs

positive traits

Concentrate on supplementation and underestimation