Under normal circumstances, the segregation ratio of gametes is 1:1, the segregation ratio of F2 genotype is 1:2:1, and the segregation ratio of F2 phenotype is 3:1.

Bagging

The phenomenon of both dominant and recessive traits appearing in hybrid offspring

Reciprocal cross is also called reciprocal cross. A cross between two hybrid parents acting as the female and male parents. If A(♀)×B(♂) is orthogonal, then B(♀)×A(♂) is inverse intersection. Orthogonality and inverse intersection are relative terms, not absolute. If the gene that determines the relevant traits is located on the nuclear chromosome, the genetic effects of forward and reverse crosses will be the same; if the genes that determine the relevant traits are in the cytoplasm, the genetic effects of forward and reverse crosses may be different. Therefore, phenomena such as cytoplasmic inheritance can be examined through forward and reverse crosses

fruit fly

Drosophila hybridization experiments

hypothesis

explain

test cross

Create something out of nothing

Something out of nothing

if

way

Chromosomes are replicated only once

Split twice in a row

source

shape and size

match

The phenomenon of pairing of homologous chromosomes during the prophase of the first meiotic division

After synapsis, each pair of homologous chromosomes contains four chromatids

break down

substance

is a good solvent Participate in many chemical reactions Can transport substances

It has a large content and is a solvent. It is free and can flow freely.

The content is small. It is a component of living organisms and is combined with polysaccharides or proteins.

Lipid, which is composed of three molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol, is a good energy storage material and can reduce heat and pressure adiabatically. Because there are multiple hydrocarbon chains, the energy content is higher. One gram of fat contains about twice as much energy as one gram of starch

In addition to CHO, there are also P and even N, which are important components of cell membranes and organelle membranes. The structure is similar to fat, except that one molecule of fatty acid is changed into phosphoric acid

cholesterol

sex hormones

Vitamin D

Lipids formed from long-chain alcohols and long-chain fatty acids

1. Make slices (the thinner the slices, the better). Place the thinnest peanut slice in the center of the glass slide. 2. Staining (drop 2 to 3 drops of Sudan III stain on the section → absorb the stain after 3 minutes → drop 1 to 2 drops of 50% alcohol by volume to wash away the floating color → absorb the excess alcohol) 3. Prepare and mount the slide (drop 1 drop of water on the material slice → cover with a cover slip) 4. Microscopic examination and identification (microscope light → low-power observation → high-power observation of fat particles dyed orange)

1. Inject 2mL of tissue solution to be tested into the test tube 2. Inject 1mL of Fehling's reagent into the test tube (mix equal amounts of liquid A and liquid B before injecting). Liquid A is a 0.1g/ml NaOH solution. Liquid B is a 0.05g/ml CuSO4 solution 3. Place the test tube into a large beaker filled with warm water at 50-65°C and heat for about 2 minutes 4. Observe that the solution in the test tube turns brick red

structural protein

contractile protein

storage protein

defense protein

transporter protein

signaling protein

enzyme

It is the basic unit of protein, there are 21 types

The carboxyl group of one amino acid molecule is connected to the amino group of another amino acid molecule, and a molecule of water is removed at the same time. The chemical bond that connects two amino acid molecules is called a peptide bond (-CO-NH-)

The number, type, and arrangement of amino acids, the way the peptide chain twists, and the positional relationship between peptide chains

Four levels of protein molecules

1. Add 2mL of sample solution to the test tube 2. Add 1 mL of Biuret reagent 0.1 g/mL NaOH solution and shake well. 3. Add 4 drops of CuSO4 solution of 0.01g/mL diuretic reagent and shake well. 4. Observe the color change (purple)

nucleic acid

Nucleotide

nucleic acid

Nucleic acids are substances that carry genetic information in cells and play an important role in the inheritance, mutation and protein synthesis of organisms.

Negatively charged

The cell membranes of two adjacent cells are in contact

Other forms of communication between cells

cell communication

The cell membrane is fluid

Asymmetry in membrane protein distribution

Cell membranes are mainly composed of phospholipid molecules and protein molecules

The sugar coat (glycolipids and glycoproteins) is related to cell surface recognition and intercellular information transmission, both on the outside of the cell membrane.

Desmosomes are connected to the intermediate filaments in the cytoplasmic matrix, indirectly connecting the skeletons of adjacent cells into a network, similar to a row of tenons inserted together, which is very strong.

Two adjacent cells are so close together that no gap is left between the two membranes, preventing extracellular substances from passing through.

It is common that there is a very narrow gap between two cells, no more than 2-3nm. There is a series of channels between the gaps, which allow the cytoplasm of the two cells to communicate. Small molecules can be quickly transported to adjacent cells through the gap.

Mainly pectin, cellulose, protein and other polysaccharides

peptidoglycan

Chitin

Mainly found in plant cells, a single membrane with cell fluid inside, containing many sugars, inorganic salts and other substances

It consists of two subunits, large and small, consisting of rRNA and protein. Used to synthesize peptide chains without membrane. Some are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum and synthesize proteins that need to be transported to designated locations (such as transported to lysosomes or secreted out of the cell); some are free in the cytoplasmic matrix and synthesize proteins that function in the cytoplasmic matrix.

Synthesis, transport and processing of proteins and other macromolecules, single-layer membrane, with ribosomes attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, synthesis of proteins that need to be transported to designated locations (such as transported to lysosomes or secreted out of the cell) and membranes (in the form of vesicles) The form provides components for the membrane system); on the contrary, it is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which plays different roles in different cells (such as lipid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, etc.). Attached to the nuclear envelope (the outer membrane of the nucleus)

Processing, classification, storage, transport of proteins, synthesis of polysaccharides (except cellulose), single-layer membrane. Usually the side close to the nucleus is the convex side, which is the receiving side; the side close to the cell membrane is the concave side, which is the export side.

The main site for aerobic respiration is a double-layer membrane with a liquid matrix. The outer membrane of the mitochondria is flat, and the inner membrane folds inward to form cristae, increasing the surface area. Similar to bacteria in size and ribosomes, and the DNA is also circular

is an organelle of plant cells

In animal and lower plant cells, it affects mitosis and has no membrane. It is also called the microtubule organizing center because many microtubules extend from here into the cytoplasm.

Centrioles

Mainly in animal cells, there are a variety of hydrolases that decompose aging-damaged organelles and pathogens, as well as food bubbles and single-layer membranes. Usually formed by budding from the extra-Golgi transport side

Related to H2O2 metabolism, single layer membrane

microtubules

microfilament

intermediate filament

A double membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm. Generally the outer membrane extends and is connected to the rough endoplasmic reticulum

The main site for rRNA synthesis and ribosome synthesis, and active protein synthesis in cells with large nucleoli

The main components are DNA and histones, with a small amount of RNA and non-histone proteins. Chromatin and chromosomes are two states of existence of the same substance at different times.

Realize material and information exchange between nuclear and mass

Energy conservation law

law of entropy increase

There is more potential energy in the product molecules than in the reactants, such as photosynthesis

The potential energy in the product molecules is less than the potential energy in the reactant molecules, such as cellular respiration

structure

reaction

effect

Each enzyme can only catalyze one type of chemical reaction or type of chemical reaction

Experiment: Hydrolysis of sucrose and starch by amylase

Reduce activation energy, catalytic efficiency is 10^7~10^13 times that of inorganic catalysts

Experiment: Compare the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide under different conditions

Over-acidity, over-alkali, and high temperature will destroy the spatial structure of the enzyme and permanently inactivate it. It should be stored at low temperature. At around 0℃, the enzyme activity is low but the structure is stable.

Factors affecting enzyme activity

lipid bilayer

transporter protein

The permselectivity of the membrane is determined by the limitations of the lipid bilayer itself and the specificity of the transport protein.

diffusion

Substances move in and out of cells by diffusion without consuming energy. Along the concentration gradient Factors that affect the rate: concentration gradient, number of transporters, and size of the electrochemical potential gradient (membrane potential and concentration gradient, for ions only)

To reverse the concentration gradient, it requires the assistance of a carrier protein. The phosphoric acid after hydrolysis of ATP combines with the carrier protein to phosphorylate it, thereby changing the spatial structure.

cotransport

Large molecules, do not cross cell membranes

endocytosis

Mitochondria (main site)

cytoplasmic matrix

There are related enzymes

Oxygen is involved

Stage 1 (small amount of energy)

Stage 2 (small amount of energy)

Stage three (large amounts of energy)

overall reaction equation

cytoplasmic matrix

anaerobic

Stage one

Stage 2

total reaction

As bacterial chromosomes replicate, the cell grows. When replication is complete, the cell doubles in size and the cell membrane indents, dividing the cell into two.

The period from the completion of one division to the completion of the next division of a continuously dividing cell is a cell cycle

interphase

division period

(1) Dissociation: Cut 5cm of the onion root tip, place it in a glass dish containing a mixture of 15% hydrochloric acid by mass and 95% alcohol by volume (volume ratio 1:1), and place at room temperature. Dissociate for 3 to 5 minutes. (2) Dyeing: Place the root tip in a glass dish containing 0.01g/ml gentian violet solution for 3 to 5 cm. (3) Rinse: Place the root tip in a glass dish filled with water and rinse for about 10 minutes. (4) Production: Place the root tip on a glass slide, add a drop of water, crush the root tip with tweezers, cover it with a cover slip, and gently press the cover slip with your thumb.

After the chromosomes of the parent cell are copied, they are accurately and evenly distributed into the two daughter cells. Because there is genetic material DNA on the chromosomes, genetic stability is maintained between the parents and offspring of the cell.

The sperm/oogonia increase in size, replicate their chromosomes, and become primary sperm/oocytes.

minus I

minus II

After meiosis, sperm cells transform into sperm The oocyte in the metaphase of the second meiosis division. At this time, the sperm and egg need to combine with the oocyte to continue to complete the second meiosis division.

1. Observe the fixed mount of locust spermatocyte meiosis under low magnification, and identify primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes and sperm cells. 2. First, find the cells in the metaphase and anaphase of the first meiosis division and the metaphase and anaphase of the second meiosis division under low magnification, and then carefully observe the shape, position and number of chromosomes under high magnification. 3. Based on the observation results, draw as many simple diagrams of cells in different stages of meiosis as possible

plant

animal

Make up cell membranes and organelle membranes

Make up animal cell membrane

Participates in the transport of lipids in the blood in the human body

Promote gonadal development and germ cell formation

Promote the absorption of Ca and P in animal intestines

Ribose

Deoxyribose

glucose

fructose

galactose

provide energy

glucose

glucose

Sprouted wheat and other grains

glucose

fructose

in most fruits and vegetables

glucose

galactose

in human and animal milk

plant cells

plant cells

liver glycogen

muscle glycogen

Crustacean and insect exoskeletons

Muscles, hair, feathers

pancreatic beta cells

hemoglobin

leukocyte

salivary amylase

Catalytic function

If the amino acid sequence changes or the protein spatial structure changes, its function may be affected.

primary structure

secondary structure

tertiary structure

Quaternary structure

hydrolysis

Mainly in the cytoplasm

hydrolysis

In eukaryotic cells, it is mainly in the nucleus, with a small amount in chloroplasts and mitochondria.

Ribose on the left, deoxyribose on the right

Among them, thymine (T) is a base unique to deoxyribonucleotides. Uracil (U) is the unique base of ribonucleotides

Structural characteristics of DNA double helix

"Human Structure"

Organs are composed of lower-level structures-tissues

Use a homemade microscope to observe different forms of bacteria, red blood cells, sperm, etc.

Observing the cork tissue of plants using a microscope

Discover cells-cell

Observed extensively the minute structures of animals and plants using a microscope

Observation of pollen ovule and stigma tissue revealed that the tissue is composed of cells

The animal body is also composed of cells. The ontogeny of all animals begins with a single cell, the fertilized egg.

Cells divide to create new cells

All cells originate from preexisting cells