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MindMap Gallery Reading notes from Fundamental Principles of Curriculum and Instruction by Ralph Taylor
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Reading notes from Fundamental Principles of Curriculum and Instruction by Ralph Taylor
Reading notes from "Fundamental Principles of Curriculum and Instruction" by Ralph Taylor, including what educational goals schools should strive to achieve and how to choose learning experiences that help achieve these educational goals.
Edited at 2023-11-13 10:21:16
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Reading notes from Fundamental Principles of Curriculum and Instruction by Ralph Taylor
- bacteria
This is a mind map about bacteria, and its main contents include: overview, morphology, types, structure, reproduction, distribution, application, and expansion. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
- Plant asexual reproduction
This is a mind map about plant asexual reproduction, and its main contents include: concept, spore reproduction, vegetative reproduction, tissue culture, and buds. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
- Reproductive development of animals
This is a mind map about the reproductive development of animals, and its main contents include: insects, frogs, birds, sexual reproduction, and asexual reproduction. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
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- Outline
Fundamentals of Curriculum and Instruction
Chapter 1 What educational goals should the school strive to achieve?
One source of educational goals: the study of learners themselves
Research student needs
What is "need"?
Explanation of “Need:
The "gap" between the learner's information and the ideal norm
Prescott’s three classifications of “needs”
Physiological needs; social needs; holistic needs
Two meanings of "need"
Philosophical meaning: the gap between the actual situation and the ideal norm, that is, the gap between "what is" and "what should be"
Psychological meaning: In order to maintain the normal health of the organism, the tension within the organism must be restored to a balanced state.
Why consider student needs as educational goals?
The family and community environment in which young people live already plays an important role in students' educational development. There is no need for schools to repeat the educational experience students have already gained outside school.
How to survey students’ needs
1. Discover the current situation of students and divide them into various aspects
2. Compare the current situation discovered with the norm
Things to note
The educational goals proposed in one region may not be applicable to another region, and specific issues must be analyzed in detail.
Research students’ interests
View
Progressive education theory believes that learners’ own interests are the primary basis for educational goals.
Why consider student interests as the basis for educational goals?
Education is an active process, which requires learners to actively work hard on their own
Things to note
Students' interests vary greatly, and specific issues must be analyzed in detail.
How to study learners’ interests
Teacher's Observations
Interviews: interviews with students, interviews with parents
Questionnaire
interpret learner profile
Determine educational philosophy, norms will influence interpretation of data
Distinguish between different needs
Distinguish between “needs suitable for education to meet”
Distinguish between “needs suitable to be met by other social institutions”
Source Two of Educational Goals: Research on Contemporary Life Outside Schools
reason
1. Life is complex and constantly changing. Time should be saved to learn the key aspects of complex life and the important aspects of today’s life.
2. Research results on training transfer. Students can train their minds and various faculties, but transfer will only occur if the situations they encounter in life are similar to those that occur while studying.
Living situations and learning situations are similar in many aspects
Find examples of applications of what you learn on campus to life outside of school
Criticism of this source
Criticism 1: Contemporary life itself cannot prove that these activities are the most worthy of pursuit and may also be harmful.
The solution is to follow accepted educational philosophies
Criticism 2: Elementalists point out that life is constantly changing, and cultivating the ability to solve today's social problems now cannot cope with problems encountered in the future.
The solution is to pick those areas of knowledge that are of enduring importance
Criticism 3: Progressives point out that using some major issues in adults and society as the educational goals of students will ignore the interests and needs of children.
The solution is to take into account both student interests and needs
Methods for studying life outside school
Classify aspects of life
the study of individual lives
Based on the assumption that education should help people carry out their activities more effectively
Based on the assumption that one of the responsibilities of educational institutions is to help students establish their ideals and values
the study of group life
Based on the assumption that education should help a community make the most efficient use of its resources
Interpret information from life
Pay attention to repeatability
Determine educational philosophy
The third source of educational goals: Suggestions on goals from subject experts
meaning
Textbooks for schools and colleges are written by subject experts and reflect their views on the educational goals the school is trying to achieve.
criticize
The educational goals proposed by subject experts are too technical and professional and are not applicable to most school students.
The meaning of existence
misunderstanding
Experts think: What kind of basic education should be given to students who will engage in more advanced research in a certain field in the future?
true meaning
Implications of the findings: What contribution can the subject make to young people who will not become experts in the field? For the layperson, the ordinary citizen, what contribution does this subject have?
Two types of advice
a set of suggestions for the broad range of functions that a particular discipline can perform
English report
Language features
1. Effective communication
2. Effective expression
3. Clarify thoughts
literary function
1. Value in personal exploration
2. Provide readers with a sense of satisfaction and meaningful reading habits
scientific report
1. Contribute to promoting personal and public health
2. Utilization and protection of natural resources
3. Provide a satisfying and exciting description
art report
1. Expand students’ perception range
2. Another medium of communication besides language
3. Stress reduction and personal integration
4. Cultivate interests and values
5. Develop students’ technical skills
The special contribution that the subject can make to a host of other educational functions
Report of the General Scientific Committee on Education
The fourth source of educational goals: using philosophy to select goals
Reason: It takes time for students to achieve their educational goals, so they must choose a smaller number of extremely important goals.
Meaning: Outline the values that are indispensable for a satisfying and effective life
Issues that should be paid attention to during the selection process
What kind of educational value should you choose?
Are students adapting to society or transforming society?
Whether to provide different education for different classes of people
The fifth source of educational goals: using learning psychology to select goals
meaning
Educational goals should be consistent with the inherent conditions of learning
avenues of psychology
1. At a lower level, determine which changes in humans can be produced through the learning process and which ones cannot
2. At a high level, which goals are feasible, which ones will take a long time to achieve, and which ones cannot be achieved at all
3. Arrange achievable educational goals to each grade
4. Determine and learn the prerequisites for certain types of goals
Research on the forgetting of knowledge
A study of the time it takes for children to change
5. Discover that most learning experiences have multiple outcomes
learning theory
arrive at specific goals
Thorndike: Learning consists of associations formed between specific stimuli and specific responses
arrive at general goals
Judd and Freeman: Learning is the formation of generalized patterns for solving problems and the formation of patterns of generalized responses to generalized situations.
State goals in a form that facilitates the selection of learning experiences and guides instruction
State educational goals
Improper way of stating educational objectives
1. Goals are stated as what the teacher is to do
2. List the topics, concepts, concepts, or other elements covered in the course
3. Adopt generalized behavior patterns
The correct way to state educational goals
It not only points out what kind of behavior should be cultivated in students, but also points out which areas of life it can be applied to, that is, it includes both behavior and content.
Ways to state educational goals
Using two-dimensional table method
Columns represent areas of application
Line represents the behavior of cultivating students
The role of the two-dimensional table method
1. Develop a more effective way of stating educational goals
2. Propose some educational goals that may have been missed
The issue of the degree of generalization and specificity in the behaviors and content of educational goals
generalize
Behavioral aspects: 7-15 goals
Generalized goals are more suitable
Content: 10-30 goals
point out important content
Arrange reasonably similar content together
concretize
concretization from different aspects
1. The goals from the study of learners and the study of life have been specified through the two-dimensional table method
2. Experts from the subject suggest that it is not necessary to assign meaning to the meaning. The possible meaning should be considered and the final application should be continuously tested.
Embodiment of behavior
content specificity
Chapter 2 How to choose learning experiences that help achieve these educational goals?
The meaning of the term "learning experience"
"Learning experience" refers to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he responds. The problem of selecting learning experiences - the problem of determining which educational experiences will achieve educational goals - the problem of constructing situations that evoke students' learning expectations
General principles for choosing learning experiences
1. It provides opportunities for students to practice the behaviors and content implied by the goal
Behaviorally: Learning experiences provide ample opportunities to solve problems
Content: Learning experience focuses on this issue
2. The learning experience must provide students with a sense of satisfaction when engaging in relevant behaviors implied by the goals.
The requirement is that teachers must be able to fully understand students’ interests and needs
3. The response that the educational experience is intended to elicit is within the capabilities of the students.
The requirement is that teachers must fully understand students’ current achievements, background and psychological status
4. Many specific educational experiences can achieve the same educational goals
In addition to the given educational experience, teachers can add some additional experiences that can also achieve the educational purpose.
5. The same learning experience can produce multiple outcomes
On the positive side, it saves time
On the negative side, it may have undesirable consequences
Give examples of characteristics of learning experiences that help achieve various types of goals
1. Learning experiences that develop thinking skills
(1) The meaning of “thinking”: the implied behavior is to connect two or more ideas, not simply to memorize and repeat these ideas.
(2) Types of thinking
inductive thinking
deductive thinking
logical thinking
(3) Conditions for cultivating thinking
the situation that motivates this behavior
thinking steps
(a) Awareness of the problem
(b) Confirm the problem
(c) Gather facts
(d) Formulate a hypothesis
(e) Test hypothesis
(f) Draw conclusions
How to train students in problem solving
To cultivate students’ ability to think independently
To cultivate students’ divergent thinking
To give students a conceptual structure that they can use to analyze a problem and deal with its elements
Utilize a variety of questions
Problems linking facts and ideas
Problems that often arise in life and the environment
2. Learning experiences that help gain information
(1) Meaning: This kind of learning experience should enhance the understanding of specific things and increase knowledge about different things. Information is meaningful only when it becomes a function that guides students to learn. Information itself does not have ultimate value.
(2) Types of information: principles, rules, theories, experiments, arguments supporting general introductions, opinions, facts, and terminology
(3) Defects in information learning
Students memorize by rote and cannot understand and apply
Students have a very fast forgetting rate
Students’ information learning lacks proper organization
Student recollections contain ambiguities and substantial inaccuracies
Students are very unfamiliar with accurate, recent sources of information
(4) Several suggestions for information learning
Provide a context for students to obtain information while solving problems
Select only important information worth remembering
Set up a learning situation: present it in different ways and with considerable intensity
Frequently use important information items in different contexts
Teach students multiple ways to organize information
Allow students to contact various information sources and learn where to find the reliable information they need
3. Learning experiences that help develop social attitudes
1. Meaning: Attitude is defined as a tendency to respond even if the response does not actually occur
2. Source: including social studies, literature, art, sports, extracurricular activities, etc.
3. Formation of attitude
(1) Through environmental assimilation
(2) Produce some kind of emotional effect caused by experience
(3) Traumatic experiences, i.e. experiences with profound emotional impact
This kind of school cannot adopt
(4) Direct intellectual process
4. General principles
(1) Improve and control school and community environments to promote desired attitudes
There are many types of environments, which require a degree of consistency in all aspects of the environment.
Schools should take into account the nature of the social fabric that exists outside the school: reinforcing positive social attitudes in the community and aligning the school with these
Overcoming situations where anti-social conditions exist in schools: avoid treating students differently and deepening social class boundaries within the school
(2) Experiences that accompany satisfying emotions cultivate attitudes so that students gain a sense of satisfaction
Work together to achieve success and gain satisfaction
(3) The intellectual process forms social attitudes
Learning experiences should include: providing a broad analysis of social situations, first deepening understanding, and then developing desired attitudes
4. Learning experiences that help cultivate interest
(1) Definition of interest: Interest can be regarded as both a purpose and a means. In this book, viewed as goals, it is a powerful factor in determining the kind of person a person becomes
(2) Requirements for cultivating interests: Students must be able to gain satisfaction from the field of experience that cultivates their interests.
(3) Sources of satisfaction
basic satisfaction
social identity
Physiological needs
self-ambition
Connect it to a satisfying experience
A sense of satisfaction and the satisfaction of curiosity in a variety of activities
Use new methods and new environments to interest students in activities that are boring to them
Chapter 3 How to organize learning experiences for effective teaching?
What is "organization"
Make educational experiences have a cumulative effect and make them mutually reinforcing
vertical relationship
horizontal relationship
Criteria for Effective Organizations
continuity
linear repetition, repeated mention
sequentiality
Repetition makes the subsequent experience build on the previous experience, making it deeper and broader
Integration
Horizontal connections gradually unify students’ perspectives, skills and attitudes, forming a transfer ability
elements that require organization
Indicate the elements that are relevant and important to the field and the overall curriculum to serve continuity, sequence, and integration.
organizational principles
Chronology
Increase the breadth of applications
Expand the scope of relevant activities
Describe first, analyze later
First concrete examples, then broad explanations of principles
First the parts, then the whole, and then build a unified world view
...
organizational structure
at the broadest level
Broad subject
Specific subjects
Core curriculum, integrated with broad subjects and specific subjects
Completely undifferentiated structure, the entire plan is treated as a unit
at intermediate level
Courses organized as sequences
Courses based on one semester or one academic year
Each course is an independent unit
at the lowest level
"class"
An individual day is a self-contained unit, and the lesson plans for that day are more or less separate from those for other instructional days.
"topic"
last for days or weeks
"unit"
A multi-week experience that revolves around a problem or major with student goals
Advantages and Disadvantages
In terms of continuity and sequence, separate subjects, separate courses for each semester or academic year will make vertical organization more difficult to achieve
From an integration point of view, a structure composed of many specific fragments is more difficult to achieve horizontal organization
From the perspective of its relationship with life, broad-based courses or core courses are better at transcending narrow subject boundaries.
From the perspective of children's needs, failure to organize teaching will also cause certain difficulties.
The process of designing organizational units
Agree on the overall plan for the organization
i.e. whether specific subjects, broad subjects or core curriculum are used
Agree on the overarching principles that should be followed in each area
Should we study in depth, study in chronological order, etc.
Reach consensus on the types of low-level units to be used
Should we use daily lessons, sequenced lessons or teaching units?
Develop flexible solutions or develop so-called "resource units"
Purpose
Provides a wide range of possible materials for teachers to choose from
step
State the goals you want students to achieve
Describe experiences that can be used to achieve goals
Detailed description to help students integrate and organize the final experience of the unit they have learned.
List materials that are conducive to forming units
Indicate the desired level of development of key elements
Propose learning experiences that require attention
Organizational Unit Principles
students’ diverse needs and interests
Recognize the meaning of the final experience that helps to synthesize the different experiences together
Feasible solutions
Organize around issues
Organized around connoisseurship experiences that are neither problems nor big ideas
implement
Do a lot of pre-planning
Plan as the work progresses
Special activities should be carried out using plans jointly designed by teachers and students
Chapter 4 How to evaluate the effectiveness of learning experiences?
Assessment needs
Purpose
There are many variables in the teaching process, and there is no guarantee that the experience actually provided will be exactly the experience outlined. A comprehensive test is to verify whether these learning experiences can actually guide teachers to achieve the desired goals
significance
Verify how well organized experiences can produce the desired results
Point out the strengths and weaknesses of the plan
Basic concepts about assessment
Two aspects of the assessment concept
First, we should evaluate student behavior because education seeks changes in student behavior
Second, assessments should be done at least once in the early and late stages
Basic concepts of evaluation
How to evaluate
paper and pencil test
observe
Interview
Students' actual works
Evidence left for other purposes
sampling
Assess individuals
Evaluate the student population
Assessment procedure
Assessment Guide/Basics
Two-dimensional analysis of educational goals
Behavior title
Content title
step
Define and clearly define educational goals
Situations that explicitly give students opportunities to perform behaviors implicit in educational goals
Examine existing assessment tools
Examine certain tests: The key is to see if the tests elicit behavioral situations
Prepare assessment tools
Practical testing of some scenarios
Design means to obtain records of students' behavior in test situations
A record of the behavior that has been acquired, using nouns and units to summarize and evaluate
Assessment should be an analytical process rather than a summary of a single score
Determine the degree of objectivity of the methodology for rating and summarizing
objectivity
Objectivity in scoring and summarizing
reliability
The appropriateness of behavioral samples should not be too few
validity
Directly obtain a sample of the behavior to be measured - face validity
Link specific assessment tools to results through direct and valid measurement
Use the results of the assessment
1. Prepare courses
2. Conduct experiments
3. Analyze the evaluation results
4. Point out the problem
5. Suggest improvements
6. Replan
Curriculum compilation is a continuous process, and each compilation is based on the previous curriculum compilation.
Other Values and Uses of Assessment Procedures
1. Assessment is a powerful means of clarifying educational goals
2. Assessment has a significant impact on learning
3. Assessment has an important impact on students’ individual guidance
4. Assessment can help specific groups of students
5. Evaluation is an important indicator of the success of a school.
How do school and college teachers go about developing curricula?