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This is a mind map about the reproductive development of animals, and its main contents include: insects, frogs, birds, sexual reproduction, and asexual reproduction. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
This is a mind map about bacteria, and its main contents include: overview, morphology, types, structure, reproduction, distribution, application, and expansion. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
This is a mind map about plant asexual reproduction, and its main contents include: concept, spore reproduction, vegetative reproduction, tissue culture, and buds. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
This is a mind map about the reproductive development of animals, and its main contents include: insects, frogs, birds, sexual reproduction, and asexual reproduction. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
Western Literary Theory
1. Lukács: Realist Literary Theory
status
The most important founder of Western Marxism in the twentieth century
Schneider Bach: There are three important representative philosophers in the history of Western philosophy in the 20th century
Lukács "History and Class Consciousness"
Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
Heidegger "Being and Time"
life
1885 Born into a wealthy merchant family
1906 Obtained a bachelor's degree in law: close relationship with 2 other people
Schimmel
Max Weber
In 1908, he met his first love, the painter Irma, and they broke up after two years of dating. His first love married someone else, and later he died for Lukács by jumping into a river.
Lukács subsequently wrote a collection of essays, Mind and Form.
1912 Moved to Heidelberg: "Neo-Kantianism"
1914 Interested in Dostoyevsky’s novels and found some possibility of transcending reality in his novels
In 1914, she married Irina, a Russian revolutionary. Shortly after her marriage, she fell in love with a pianist.
Later Lukács wrote "Theory of the Novel"
Together with Benjamin's "The Origin of German Tragedy", it is also known as a model of modern Western literary criticism.
1917 The October Revolution broke out in Russia → letting the world see the possibility of proletarian revolution
1918 Lukács joined the newly formed Hungarian Communist Party
1923
"History and Class Consciousness"
Concept: reification→Marx "alienation"
1963
"Aesthetic Characteristics"
1971
died of cancer
View
Reification Critique and Totality Dialectics
theoretical resources
marx
"Das Kapital" Commodity Fetishism
"Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844" → Alienation
Source: Hegel → Objectification → Affirm yourself
Marx → Objectification → Alien Power → Controlling the Subject
alienation of labor
Alienation of labor objects (products)
alienation from labor itself
Alienation of labor and workers (human nature)
Alienation of relationships between people
Schimmel
Money measures the value of everything
Max Weber
"Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism"
Capitalist society is a cage, everything is calculated rationally and accurately
Efficiency first
materialization of consciousness
Two Dimensions of Reification Critique
rational criticism
What is the essential difference between modern society and ancient society?
Universalization of commodity form → materialized society
The emergence of materialization?
Pursuing efficiency → division of labor → mechanization and atomization of workers
philosophy of history
1917 The October Revolution broke out in Russia → letting the world see the possibility of proletarian revolution
Breaking point → proletariat
dialectics of totality
Think beyond individual fragments → think holistically
Aesthetics is also holistic thinking
Art reflects the essence of social reality
realist literary theory
Theoretical basis: reaction theory
Origin of art: witchcraft→The essence is imitation
reflect understanding of reality
stimulate people's emotions
Theoretical core: typical theory
Plato: typical → idea
Lukács: Typical→Unity of commonality and individuality (commonality cannot be masked)
theoretical principles
totality
It should not only reflect objective reality, but also reflect social history.
negate formalism
Schiller (representative of Romanticism)
Works must reflect and deny daily life in order to transcend daily life
deny naturalism
Zola
realism vs modernism
Period: 1934-1938
Lukács works
"The Greatness and Decline of Expressionism"
"Realism Debate"
Debate opponent
Brecht
Benjamin
Lukács' view
Realism should unify subjectivity and objectivity
Realism should reflect the overall development law of society
Realism should create models
Realism should be participatory and interventional
Summarize
Lukács criticized the phenomenon of reification and proposed that the generation of class consciousness can solve the problem of reification, but the key to the problem is, how to generate class consciousness? (Gramsci’s practical philosophy answers this question)
2. Gramsci: Theory of Cultural Hegemony
life
Born in Italy in 1891, disabled since childhood and less than 1.5 meters tall as an adult
1911 Entered the University of Turin
1913 Joined the Italian Socialist Party
1915 Dropped out of school due to poverty
Wrote for 2 progressive working class newspapers
1919 Founded the journal "New Order"
1921 The Italian Communist Party is founded
1922 Go to Russia to study communism
1926 United Front established (fascism was already very strong at this time)
1927 Arrested and imprisoned
Wrote 33 notebooks → "Prison Notes"
1937 Died of cerebral congestion
1946 "Prison Letters" → 500 letters written in prison
theory
Reflecting on the reasons for the failure of the Western proletarian revolution: civil society theory
background
Why did the revolutions in Western Europe fail but the October Revolution in Russia succeeded?
And Italy gave birth to fascism
"Complete" country
State = political society civil society
Political Society: Violence, Coercion
Civil society: culture, ethics, ideology
Public opinion: newspapers, magazines
Ideology: political parties, unions, schools
The connotation of civil society
The way for civil society to take a dominant position → to determine the winning idea through negotiation, debate, and struggle → to be recognized and agreed by the majority of people
Differences between Eastern and Western Proletarian Revolutions
There is no civil society in the East, so only violent revolution is needed to gain power.
There is civil society in Western Europe, and if you want to achieve revolution here, you need not only violence, but also cultural leadership.
Through various propaganda through organic intellectuals (rather than traditional intellectuals who are independent, self-motivated, autonomous and disconnected from social production), we can gain recognition from civil society.
The key to the success of Western revolutions: cultural leadership
concept
In civil society, the ideological leadership of a certain group
feature
Dynamic
The change of leadership is a dynamic process of game
Optional
authoritative
premise
agree
Who will seize cultural leadership: organic intellectuals
background
There were no revolutionary intellectuals in Italy at that time
People are divisive
split in thought and action
feature
organic
Integrate into the public and have public feelings
class nature
Not independent, but integrated into the class
Mass nature
The difference between traditional intellectuals and organic intellectuals
How to seize cultural leadership: positional station
Mobile Warfare: Violence
Positional warfare: molecular infiltration → ideological infiltration (schools, media, trade unions)
Especially type 2 novels
science fiction
reasoning
"National/people's" literary perspective
new literature
Create an organic literature that is connected with the people → establish a community of ideas
People's character
Close contact with the people
Literature must embody certain thoughts and morals
Literature must reflect a certain tendency
national character
The intellectual community at that time was far away from the people
Literature and Social Relations
Literature must reflect real life and must discover materials from life.
Imagination must also be based on reality
Literary Evaluation Criteria
Morality
emotion
Aesthetic
The author's emotional attitude
How to Treat Literary Heritage
For classic works, classic writers should take a critical approach
Classical works are a process of canonization and are also mixed with ideological factors.
If you agree with the classics, you also agree with the ideology behind the classics.
Highly affirmative of popular literature
type
science fiction
reasoning
The commercial value behind popular literature
Writing for money can precisely integrate into the public and capture people's interests.
The Gramscian Transformation in Cultural Studies
Two Paradigms of Cultural Studies
culturalism
Emphasizing cultural organicity: the importance of experience (bottom-up)
Structuralism
Ideology penetrates from top to bottom (top-down)
Representative: Althusser
Problem: No body
Gramscian Paradigm
Gramsci's theory is very similar to Althusser's, but it became known to the public only after Gramsci's works were translated into English in 1971.
Althusser was more pessimistic, believing that all consciousness is the result of ideological construction
Gramsci was more optimistic, emphasizing that there is a field of civil society where various theories and ideas can compete for cultural leadership.
3. Goldman: sociological theory of literature
life
1913 born in Romania (Jewish)
1933 Austria, studied at the University of Vienna, under Adler, and also studied Lukács’ theory
1940 Became Piaget's assistant
1945 Published doctoral thesis "Human Society and the Universe in Kant's Works"
1948 Meeting with Lukács (the meeting was not pleasant, Lukács did not think Goldman had high attainments)
1956 Published "The Hidden God"
book
"The Hidden God"/"Marxism and the Humanities"
Social background/theoretical resources
social background
economy
After World War II, Western capitalism developed → consumer society → exchange → culture → cultural industry
The logic of commodity exchange will penetrate into the cultural industry
politics
The ebb of the communist movement→the rise of the middle class→political negativity and the disillusionment of lofty ideals
Lie down and have fun→Values show hedonism
Thought
loneliness, anxiety, strangeness
Reflect on the relationship between man and the world
People used to think that the development of science and technology would make the world a better place. In fact, in World War II, people used technology to eliminate people.
literature
Turning inward: Russian Formalism
The study of literary works only focuses on the text itself
theoretical resources
Lukacs
totality
novel generation theory
Why are ancient Greek epics fading now?
In ancient Greece, the relationship between people and society was harmonious and unified
The materialization of the relationship between modern people and society → Novels need to use narrative text to reflect social reality
Piaget
epistemology
cognitive process
Illustration
assimilation
adapt
balance
marx
economic base→superstructure
Hegel: Dialectics→The relationship between the whole and the part
social judgment tradition
1800 Mrs. Starr "Literature in relation to Literature and Social System"
Literary works are determined by the social environment
1869 Danner "Philosophy of Art"
Literary works are all produced in a specific race, environment, and era.
1904 Lanson "Literary History and Sociology"
Conversation object
Structuralism
propose
structuralism
Textualism → Literary Studies
Literature is dynamic, not static
structuralist literary theory
A literary work is a meaningful structure
Meaningful structure?
Response to environment → human activities
How to grasp meaningful structure?
Understand and explain
Understanding: Literal meaning
Explanation: Put the work into a larger structure
Put "Hamlet" into psychoanalysis → a story about killing his father and marrying his mother
Placing Hamlet in the Renaissance → Humanist Story
Literature and society isomorphism
Analyzing Racine
synchronic level
The relationship between the spiritual structure of the work and the spiritual structure of social groups→world view
Spiritual structures exist both in literary works and in society
diachronic level
capitalist society
Liberal capitalism → emphasizes free competition
Literature emphasizes personal values → shakes tradition
Novels with Problem Characters: Conflict between Man and the World
"Don Quixote"
monopoly capitalism
Personal value is lost in competition
The unique individual disappears
Collective characters / lying passively, novel representatives appear
"Castle" "The Outsider"
consumer society
fully materialized society
All relationships can be economized
Human value has also been materialized
Symbolization of novel characters
There is a connection between changes in text structure and social reality
The relationship between literature and society
It is the relationship between the part and the whole, not the decisive relationship
Relevant
structural openness
The structure is constantly changing and is dynamic
structural circularity
tragic world view
The rise of rationalism/individualism
Religious belief fades
Loss of personal emotional value
4. Macherey: Ideological Criticism
life
1938 born in France (Jewish)
1960 Bachelor of Philosophy "Studies in the Philosophy and Politics of Spinoza"
1963 "Lenin-Tolstoy's Critic"
1966 Became a teacher at the University of Paris I
Published "Literary Production Theory"
1976 "On Literature as an Ideological Form"
1990 "What Literature Is Thinking"
Theoretical resources and ideological foundation
marx
art production theory
Simply summarize production into material production and spiritual production
What is the difference between material production and spiritual production?
material production
spiritual production
Art, science, religion, morality...
The imbalance between material production and spiritual production
The development of spiritual production is affected by material, but it is not completely restricted by material
Althusser
ideology theory
Ideology is an illusion (imagination)
Is money or love more important?
Is family or career more important?
Should society rely on survival of the fittest or eliminate the strong and support the weak?
There is no right answer, because there is no scientific proof. People who insist on their own understanding are actually living in their own imagination and choosing that ideology, which is imagining the relationship between themselves and reality.
Ideology is a practice
When you have a certain ideology, you will act accordingly
Ideology is an unconscious activity
Symptom Reading
innocent reading
Acceptance of the entire content of the work (impossible)
sinful reading
read with a certain ideology
fence reading
There is an eternal fence between text and reader
The fence is ideology
ideological criticism
silence
The gaps and unsaid content in the text are the backbone of literary meaning.
Literary production and ideology
Creation and production
create
The process of making something out of nothing
Production
Raw material processing process
Literary production also requires raw materials
It’s what the writer has experienced, the environment in which he grew up, social history (the writer’s ideology) + language
The key to code words is code, and code is the practice of ideology
Writers also produce with their current understanding and thinking of society.
Ideology and Centrifugal Structure
What is structure?
Structuralism
All literary works have a common structure
Treat the work as an organic whole
Macheret
Clues that reveal what the work does not say
Macherey did not emphasize form, but emphasized content → opposed structuralism and the view that literary works are a whole
Macherey believes that literary works are full of contradictions, and more complex charms can be interpreted by following the contradictions.
centrifugal structure
Conflict between the content of the work and the ideas presented in the work
ideological criticism
Two ways of criticizing errors
Empiricism
Problem: Confusing scope and object. Works are just scope. Literary criticism is not just about scope.
formalism/structuralism
Question: Take literary works as a whole, look for some potential paradigm and structure, and only look for the commonalities of the works. No analysis of the work itself
scientific literary criticism
Analyze how the work is made
How to tell a story, its telling method and strategy are the ideology presented by the author
Critical Practice→"Lenin's Analysis of Tolstoy"
Lenin said Tolstoy was a mirror of the Russian Revolution
Tolstoy's works are full of contradictions. It is because of contradictions that they can reflect many social realities. That is why he is said to be a mirror.
Thoughts on literary philosophy → "The Object of Literature"
A historical examination of the relationship between literature and philosophy
There is no pure literature and no pure philosophy. Philosophy expressed through literature
Literary philosophy: There is no pure literature. Literature is literature because literature contains philosophical thoughts.
5. Bloch: Philosophy of Hope and Illusion in Art
life
Marxist framework
humanitarian
Lukács→Marxist epistemology
Cognition of subject and object→emphasis on the overall understanding of the world
Bloch→Marxist Ontology
It is impossible to fully perceive the world → Emphasis on experience in daily life, starting from human experience and experience
scientism
Althusser
Anti-humanism → There may be no human essence at all, and humans are the result of social construction
Macheret
1985 born in Germany (Jewish)
1905 Going to university
Studied by Lipps
Laying the theoretical foundation: Digging deep into people’s hearts
Contact with Husserl
Studied under experimental psychologist Kulpe
1908 Participated in Simmel’s sociology seminar
Get to know Lukacs
1908 Joined Max Weber’s salon
1917 Went to Switzerland to meet Benjamin
1918 Published the book "The Spirit of Utopia"
Representatives of Expressionism in the 20th Century
1949 After World War II, he returned to Germany to teach at the University of Leipzig.
Published "Subject-Object: Hegel"
1956 Published the book "The Principle of Hope"
Historical background and ideological origins
The crisis of capitalism and romanticism
industrialization
After World War II, the West experienced rapid industrialization → capitalist development → rapid progress in science and technology
Max Weber: The world has become a disenchanted world → God is dead and faith is missing
romanticism
Return to tradition→Rebuild people’s sense of meaning→Criticize capitalism
Jewish identity crisis
assimilated into society
Become a modern German, but because of your Jewish identity, you cannot enter the core position of the cultural field
Protect religious spirit
humanistic philosophy of hope
principle
The basic state of life: scarcity
Because XX is missing, we have to do XX, so we cannot die.
essence of life
not yet
A possibility that has not yet been presented is dynamic.
dark
Not yet got the essence
surprise
realize what is not yet realized
If you write a work that you feel you cannot write, you may not be able to write it in the future.
Why does scarcity occur?
impulse
Difference from Freud→Freud believes that humans and animals are the same, their essence is desire, and humans are also animals in essence
People will always want to do something, which is beyond animal nature and is a spiritual pursuit.
Hope is a spiritual activity unique to human beings
It goes beyond mere optimism to a positive expectation of unrealized possibilities
The Essence of Marxist Philosophy
Concrete utopia → the pursuit of a better world (a classless, free, non-alienated society)
fantasy art theory
The essence of art→a presentation of fantasy
fantasy
Artistic imagination is not an illusion but a "not yet"
present
Revealing meanings that have not yet been revealed
Art is unproductive labor → means that the creation of art is non-alienated
art fantasy
Transformation of daydreams
Difference from Freud→Freud believes that daydreaming is the sublimation of instinct
That’s not all artistic creation the result of biological instinct.
Bu believes that daydreaming is the material for artistic creation
Transformation of daydreams into art
Artistic fantasy is a form of expression of hope
Works of art inspire people to imagine future possibilities
Art is not only a representation of reality, but also a premonition and creation of the future.
attitude toward expressionism
what is expressionism
Antonyms: Online "=" performance
Emotional, unrealistic and fragmented works present people’s inner emotions
representative figure
Lukács (denies expressionism)
Bloch/Bracht
Point of contention
Does expressionism represent fascism?
Lu: Yes → Expressionism often distorts reality, causing people to become decadent and eventually become fascist.
Cloth: No →
Is Expressionism of People's Nature?
Lu: None → Expressionism is too avant-garde and out of touch with the masses
Bu: The realist works supported by → Lu are too elegant and separated from the masses. Expressionism makes up for the shortcomings of the realist works that are too elegant.
What to think about Expressionism
Lu: Mostly destructive
Bu: Mostly pioneering
It presents a strange world to people and brings more possibilities to them.
It is the destruction of old relationships (mainly referring to capitalism)
How to view the experimentation and innovation of Expressionism
Lu: The fun of breaking away from classicism
Bu: Breaking away from classicism and having the courage to explore is in line with social progress.
It presents a strange world to people and brings more possibilities to them.
It is the destruction of old relationships (mainly referring to capitalism)
6. Brecht: Epic Theater and Alienation Theory
life
1898 born in Bavaria, Germany
1918 Composed the first short play "Bar"
1920. Created the second play "Midnight Drums"
In 1926, he came into contact with Marxism, and thus proposed a series of artistic theories (such as the gradual formation of the concept of "epic drama")
Died 1956
famous plays
"The Threepenny Opera"; "St. Joanna in the Slaughterhouse"; "Mother Courage and Her Children"; "The Life of Galileo"
Dramas related to China: "The Good Man of Sichuan"; "The Caucasus"
Theoretical background
Two Tendencies in Bourgeois Drama
Decadence: The purpose of drama is to entertain people who are working in reality and forget their worries.
Radical: Drama should present people’s living conditions, alienation, loneliness, etc.
Brecht: Proletarian Drama
The dramas of the above two tendencies do not reflect the contradictions and true face of society.
Proletarian drama can reflect the contradictions of society. But the proletarian drama at that time was immature
Brecht's purpose
In view of the current immaturity of proletarian drama, we create a "people's drama"
A drama that is close to people's real life, exposes various problems in real society, and arouses people's thinking.
Brecht's view of drama
The developmental stages of drama
educational drama stage
Typical representative work of educational drama: "St. Joan of Arc in the Slaughterhouse"
Meaning of educational drama: The dramatist is the philosopher. On the one hand, we must present the world; on the other hand, we must change the world. The latter is extremely important.
The significance of educational dramas: a way to change the world, that is, by preaching and presenting objective real life in dramas, thereby educating people and enabling the audience to understand real life from an intellectual level.
Controversy: Too much rational understanding in drama will make the drama less entertaining
The stage of epic drama (the core of Brecht’s theory)
The difference between traditional Aristotelian drama and epic drama
Plot and Narrative
Asian style: Emphasis on dramatic plot. Use carefully designed plots to induce the audience to identify with the characters in the play
Epic drama: emphasizes the narrative aspect of drama. In the drama, he takes on the role of a bystander and only tells what he sees without any design.
Consumption and stimulation of initiative
Asian style: The emphasis on plot makes the audience involved in the drama, so the audience can only passively accept what the drama presents, and the audience's initiative is consumed
Epic drama: The emphasis on narrative makes the audience a bystander, thereby stimulating the audience’s agency.
Emotions and Judgments
Asian style: triggering the audience’s passion and emotion
Epic drama: forcing the audience to make their own judgments
Feelings and discussions
Asian style: emphasizing empathy
Epic drama: Emphasis on exploring issues
Induction and Reasoning
Asian style: using induction methods to make the audience identify with a certain character or event in the play
Epic Drama: Using Reasoning Methods
ending and process
Asia: eagerly paying attention to the ending of a drama
Epic drama: observing the unfolding of events
The inevitability and jumpiness of the plot
Asian: The plot develops in a certain direction with inevitability
Epic drama: The plot is jumpy and evasive. This makes it difficult for the audience to be immersed in the drama and maintain a state of critical thinking.
The core of epic drama
Restore the audience’s thinking ability
Break the audience’s resonance experience
Breaking the Fourth Wall - Breaking the Resonance Experience
Meaning: A dramatic technique in a work of fiction that shows a character's awareness of their presence in the work
Specific ways of expression: actors talk directly to the audience (actors look at the camera); actors directly evaluate the roles they play; turn dialogue into singing, etc.
The use of "breaking the fourth wall" in modern dramas (movies): Modern use is exactly the opposite of Brecht's purpose. This method actually enhances the humorous nature of the work, thus drawing attention into the plot of the drama. Got it
dialectical stage
Source: Mao Zedong's "On Contradiction". Accordingly, Brecht created "Dramatic Dialectics"
Core: All content, form, and actors in drama are dialectical - they all have duality, which is not constant but constantly changing.
Principles of Dramatic Aesthetics: Alienation
Negation of the principle of resonance in traditional drama
The core of the traditional aesthetic principles of drama - resonance: the actors of the drama and the audience of the drama all enter a state of unity and blending of subject and object, thus completely forgetting the existence of the drama (immersion)
Brecht denied resonance: traditional drama teaches people how to identify with and adapt to the world, while real drama should change the world - change the way of the world, that is, the principle of "alienation"
The connotation of the principle of alienation
People can recognize objects while remaining strangers
Incorporate the concept of "defamiliarization" into the category of epistemology - the audience watching the theater is not an experience, but an understanding
Keep creating distance
Method: Create distance between the actor and the drama being performed, between the audience and the actor, and between the character and the character
Purpose: To destroy the audience's resonant experience so that the audience can examine the work and the world in the work from the perspective of a bystander
Create novelty and peculiarity
Purpose: To arouse people's surprise and curiosity
Let the audience choose their own stance, rather than guiding people to accept and identify with the concepts in the play (the most important intention of alienation)
The actor is above the role
Actors must control their roles and always be aware that they are acting
The debate between Lukács and Brecht on realism
Great realism versus open realism
Realism has a different starting point
Lu: Emphasis on Marxist humanism
The core of Marxism is "alienation", so literary and artistic works must restore the integrity of alienated people and present a complete person.
Bu: Emphasis on Marxist class theory
The core of Marxism is "class struggle", so literary and artistic works must arouse the consciousness of class struggle in the working class and trigger the audience to think
Different understandings of realism
Lu: Realism is the true reproduction of real life, allowing the audience to realize the true face of real life.
B: In any case, the description of life in a work of art must be compared with the life itself being described, not with another description.
Realism has different centers of expression
Lu: Taking characters as the center and presenting social reality
Bu: Focus on the event and trigger the audience to think. On the contrary, being character-centered can easily give the audience a sense of involvement and weaken the subject's ability to think.
Realism is expressed in different ways
Lu: The unity of content and form
Bu: Content over form, without using techniques to get the audience into the drama
7. Eagleton: A Theory of Aesthetic Ideology
life
1943 Born in Manchester, England, to an Irish family. His father was a skilled worker in a factory.
His Irish and working-class background was fully reflected in his later theory.
1961 Entered Cambridge University, UK
Studied under F.R. Leavis, a representative figure in cultural studies
Later, he studied under Raymond Williams, the originator of cultural studies.
After graduation in 1964, he stayed at Cambridge University as an assistant researcher for a total of 5 years.
In the past five years, Raymond Williams published "Culture and Society" and "The Long Revolution". These two books had a profound impact on Eagleton.
1967 Published the first theoretical work "Shakespeare and Society"
There are obvious influences from Williams' "Culture and Society" in the work.
He followed Williams' research method: conducting historical knowledge archeology and genealogy on key concepts to examine the evolution and use of this concept in different social histories and further explore its unique connotations.
1968 Published article "The Concept of Common Culture"
The concept of "culture" was sorted out and analyzed, and it was suspected of copying Williams' research methods.
Entered Oxford University in 1969 and began to turn to Marxist research
1970 Published "The Body as Language" and began to transform into a Marxist
1975 Published article in New Left Review
Williams was one of the first representatives of the British New Left
Later, Eagleton became a representative figure of the second generation. He is also the most representative New Left literary theorist and critic in contemporary Britain.
1976 Published "Criticism and Ideology" and "Marxism and Literary Criticism"
It marked his ideological turn to Althusser, thus showing a tendency to deviate from his teacher (culturalism, which is a bottom-up approach that restores the organic integrity of culture based on individual experience) (scientism)
Of course, he also recognized some problems with Althusser's theory and began to seek to find his own way.
1983 "Western Literary Theory in the Twentieth Century" ("Introduction to Literary Theory")
Evaluated 19th-century British literary research and 20th-century Western literary theory, reflecting his anti-essentialist stance
1988 After Williams' death, Eagleton became a leading figure in British Marxist theory
1990 "Aesthetic Ideology" ("Aesthetic Ideology")
Evaluate the aesthetics from modern British empiricism to today's postmodern aesthetics, explore the relationship between aesthetics and ideology, and even believe that everything in society is related to ideology.
1991 "Introduction to Ideology"
Sort out the historical evolution of the term "ideology"
1996 Begins to turn to cultural theory and publishes "The Illusion of Postmodernism"
2000 "The Concept of Culture"
2003 "Sweet Violence - The Concept of Tragedy", "After Theory"
Tragedies range from the ancient Greeks showing heroic figures to the contemporary showing lower class citizens. This transformation is highly politically revolutionary and a force against bourgeois ideology (a kind of "sweet violence")
2007 "How to Read Poetry", "The Meaning of Life"
2012 "Literary Events"
"Literary Events" and "After Theory" are considered to be new thinking on literature in the new era.
"Literary Events" - "Event Philosophy": The Relationship between Literature and Events
"After Theory" - "Post-Theory": With the development of the times, theory has lost its explanatory significance
Discussion on the nature of literature
Basic point of view: The concept of "literature" is like "weed", it has no essence and cannot be defined.
Five "Universals" of Literature
The debate between nominalism and realism
Five "Universals" of Literature
(1) fictionality
(2) Morality
(3) Linguistic
(4) non-utilitarian
(5) normative
Ideology of Literature
Theoretical Basis: Analysis of Ideology
Basic point of view: Ideology has complex and profound connotations
Objections to Reflectionism and Naturalism
Two wrong views
A. Literature is only a reflection of a specific ideology, and literature itself has no initiative
Therefore, what kind of ideology there is, there will be what kind of literature
B. Literature is a challenge to ideology, literature is highly dynamic
Therefore, literature can make people see false consciousness and expose the ugliness of society.
A rebuttal to both views
A. Viewpoint 1 is a vulgar reflection theory
It directly and one-sidedly collects social political economy and class struggle conditions from literary works, belittles the initiative of literature, and actually vulgarizes Marxism.
B. The second point of view gives literature too much agency
Summarize
There is a very complex and entangled relationship between literature and ideology
Literary texts are ideological
Basic point of view: Literary texts reflect not history, but ideology
Methods of studying texts: Literature is essentially a way of observing and grasping the world
Demonstration with examples: specific ideologies presented in literary phenomena at specific historical stages
1||| The rise of British literature in the 18th century: related to the rise of the bourgeoisie. Literature became a means of spreading bourgeois rationality and scientific principles
2||| The concept of "literature" in romantic literature in the 19th century was narrowed: it was expressed as "aesthetic" and non-utilitarian "art for art's sake"
3||| The study of British literature flourished in the late 19th century
The development of social sciences and the progress of rationality led to the decline of religion. In order to adapt to the needs of self-expansion and social integration, the British middle class replaced religion with literature that had similarities with religion and became a new ideology.
4||| Modern liberal humanist art theory: a representation of the contradictory relationship between the weak moral ideology of modern capitalism and the social order in which it lives.
5||| British and American New Criticism: an irrationalism associated with the right wing of the agrarian movement, religious dogma, and authoritarianism
6||| Heidegger's aesthetic thought of doing nothing in front of art: in essence, slavish self-restraint is the only substitute for the arrogant rationality of capitalist industrial rational society.
7||| Deconstruction’s subversion of structuralist discourse
After the "Cold War" period, especially the "disillusionment" of the 1960s, leftist intellectuals "attempted to destroy a specific ideological system and the logic behind it that the entire political structure and social system relied on to maintain its power."
8||| Postmodernism: the contradictory illusions for the future of mankind painted by radical liberal pluralists and relativists in the post-industrial consumer era
What literature and religion have in common
On the surface, it attempts to save people’s souls and affect people’s psychology.
Both are often related to universal human values
Both act on human sensibility and experience
The role of literary ideology
Make the working class lose their sense of resistance
Summary: As a result, specific literary works and artistic theoretical structures were produced in specific historical periods, and behind them are the ideologies representing specific classes.
Literary form is ideological
Basic point of view: Art belongs to the category of ideology, and changes in literary and artistic forms also reflect changes in ideology
The relationship between the art genre of oil painting and ideology
This art genre has a close and intricate relationship with the culture of the entire society
Such as the development stage of social and economic production including art production, the relationship between artists and the masses (i.e. producers and consumers), the property rights relationship of art and the ideology that maintains those property rights relationships, and people's way of thinking about things. ..
The ideological nature of literary form is mainly reflected in literary language
Behind the use of language, there is a clear ideological
Literature is "meaningful structure" (from Macherey, Goldman)
Changes in ideology often lead to changes in literary forms
Literary production and aesthetic ideology
mode of literary production
Theoretical basis: Marxism "The economic base determines the superstructure"
Emphasis on literature as a part of the superstructure remote from the economic base: literature is a special ideology (aesthetic ideology)
Emphasis on literature as part of the economic foundation: literature is a special mode of production
Unifying the above two levels of understanding of Marxism
Althusser's influence
Benjamin's theory of artistic production
Basic point of view: Literature is the production of an aesthetic ideology
A. Literature is both an ideology and an artistic production on the same level as general social production, that is, the production of aesthetic ideology.
B. Literature is both part of the ideology and part of the economic foundation
C. Summary: Writers and artists are not only creators and interpreters of meaning, but also wage laborers in capitalist society.
Therefore, literature and art are also a kind of manufacturing industry, and works are also commodities.
Six Categories in the Literary Production Process
Production mode level
General mode of production: the dominant mode of social material production in society, which forms the basis of all social existence, including literary production.
Literary mode of production: a special manifestation of the general mode of production
The dominant mode of literary production in a certain society is compatible with the dominant general mode of production in that society.
The mode of literary production is a kind of ideological production, and the meaning production mode of literary texts will be deeply influenced by the specific mode of literary production.
ideological level
General ideology: the dominant social ideology based on a certain social production mode
Authorial ideology: the specific way in which the author is placed in the symbolic order of general ideology
Aesthetic ideology: included in general ideology, but also a relatively independent territory
Text: specific literary and artistic work
The product of the multiple determinations or comprehensive effects of the above two levels is also the basis for analyzing the two levels.
The relationship between the six categories
The relationship between literary production mode and general production mode
1. The general mode of production is the premise and foundation of the literary production mode, which provides specific literary production conditions for the literary production mode and makes a specific literary production possible.
2. The literary mode of production also contributes to the reproduction of the general mode of production and becomes an integral part of the latter
3. The relationship between literary production mode and general production mode is not always directly the same. The two may also appear in an opposite and complementary relationship.
The relationship between literary production mode and general ideology
Literary production has a fundamental relationship with ideology through language
The nature of language: political, ideological
The relationship between literature and ideological language: Literature is a manifestation of ideological language conflict and a place of struggle for ideological language.
The relationship between literary production and ideological language: In literary production, how to use language and what language to use are first determined by ideology and contain ideological information worthy of interpretation.
The mutual reproduction relationship between literary production mode and general ideology
The dominant general ideology further Influencing literary production through ideological cultural machines
Institutionalize and institutionalize literary education, literary research and literary criticism
thus forming a covert or overt ideological authority
Therefore, literary production and general ideological production are in a mutually reproductive relationship.
This mutually reproductive relationship between literary production and general ideology, This further gave rise to an "ideology about literary production"
That is, the ideological value judgment about literary production itself, which is embedded in aesthetic ideology.
The relationship between aesthetic ideology and author’s ideology
The author's ideology may largely determine the choice of the aesthetic production method of literature.
The author's ideology may also be completely under the control of a certain aesthetic ideology, so that the so-called aesthetic choice problem does not arise.
The relationship between the author’s ideology and general ideology
three basic relationships
Completely isomorphic
Partly isomorphic and partly contradictory
Oppose each other
mutual opposition
Because of the intervention of aesthetic form: the reason why the author’s ideology and general ideology are opposed to each other
When an author uses aesthetic codes and symbols such as specific styles and languages, he not only conveys and embodies a certain ideology, but also changes it. As a result, the ideology presented in the text often conflicts with the author's own ideology
For example, Tolstoy's "Tolstoyism" represented by "Do not use violence to resist evil" was his own ideology, but in his works, the general ideology conveyed after processing by him revealed His criticism of the backwardness of patriarchal rural areas and his desire for change. This creates a contradiction
Summary: What is obtained by processing general ideology using certain aesthetic forms as a means will often contradict and conflict with the ideology in the author's mind.
The relationship between the text and the two levels
Since the text is the product of multiple determinations by a series of complex historical factors, Therefore, the text cannot simply be equated with a certain dominant ideology or the ideology of the writer.
Aesthetics is essentially an ideology
Aesthetics is the most profound ideological reason
Originating from the nature of aesthetics itself: Aesthetics was originally considered to be "sensibility" (Baumgarten)
Originating from the time when the discipline of aesthetics was born: the discipline of aesthetics was born in the 18th century
Originating from the particularity of aesthetics itself
Ideological tendencies of aesthetics: Because aesthetics is perceptual, it is easier for aesthetics to form a certain ideology
The ideological resistance of aesthetics: Aesthetics is also the resistance to ideology
Aesthetics is the most profound ideology
Specific manifestation: Many Western theorists’ resistance to ideology and rejection of the cultural industry are ultimately attributed to the aesthetic level
In fact, people's desires are "desires for others" and are the result of the construction of others.
Summary: From this we can conclude that aesthetic ideology is the most profound and advanced ideology.
Ideology: the value judgment attribute of literary criticism
Discussing the value of literature
Two Wrong Literary Values
The idealist aesthetics of modern bourgeoisie: interpret value from a subjectivist perspective, reduce value issues to purely subjective "evaluation", and abstract value attributes into purely formal things
Vulgar and mechanical Marxism: One-sided emphasis on reflection theory and neglect of value research, or simply reducing value issues to the manifestation of a world view as a certain class position
Marxist literary values
Eagleton's basic idea
Integrate Marx's theory of value and Benjamin's theory of artistic production with hermeneutic aesthetics and reception aesthetics.
Pointing out that Marxist literary criticism must first resist the above two erroneous literary values,
Secondly, the value issue of literature is included in the theoretical framework of "literature is the production of aesthetic ideology", which unifies the theory of value with the theory of production and ideology.
Eagleton's basic point
The task of Marxist literary criticism is to provide a dialectical explanation of "literary value". Rethink the issue of value on the basis of literary production and incorporate literary value into the ideological realm
Specific ideas
based on literary production
Literary value is reflected in the exchange process
Reading and criticism are the reproduction of literature
Literary value is not a simple expression of the author’s subjective psychological consciousness; The issue of value is closely related to writers, works and readers.
Incorporating literary value into the realm of ideology, determining value through reading or criticism
The whole process is to grasp the special ideological production (aesthetic ideology) through the interpretation of material things (aesthetic forms, general ideology)
Determine the value of literature
Source 1: How does literature express ideology? ——The aesthetic form of literature (literary language)
Source 2: How does literature express ideology? ——Literary expression
Issues that should be paid attention to in the process of determining literary value
The aesthetic value of literature ≠ the ideology of the progressive class
Don't make empiricist mistakes
Don’t make the mistake of voluntarism
Summarize
There is a dynamic balance between the production and consumption of literature
Literary value is always determined by the relationship between the text of the work, readers and critics
The value of literature is the result of the combined effect of factors such as the historical self-production of the text itself, the ideological framework of the text, and the ideological consumption behavior of reading.
The true realization of literary value—socialism
Eagleton pinned the realization of literary value and cultural ideals on socialism. Believes that only socialism is the material movement that truly realizes this value and ideal
Ideology is the value judgment of literary criticism
Basic point
Literary criticism is a value judgment jointly determined by subject and object and closely related to social interests and social power.
Therefore, literary criticism has always been political or ideological, and politics has always existed in literary criticism. There is no criticism without an ideological stance
Therefore, the so-called "pure" literature and "pure" criticism do not exist at all, but are just an academic myth.
Specific methods of literary criticism
The particularity of Marxist literary criticism
Frankly state the value judgment attribute of literary criticism and reveal the production and reproduction laws of the value, meaning or ideology of literary texts.
Opening up new areas for literary research: Through the scientific explanation of literary value, Marxist literary criticism has opened up a broad new dimension for literary research.
Scientific Marxist literary criticism that contributes to human liberation is not just criticism for the purpose of seeking knowledge and truth, but for the liberation of human beings and paying close attention to the projection of real social problems in culture and literature.
Summary Eagleton’s Theory of Literary Production and Aesthetic Ideology
8. Jameson: Theory of the Political Unconscious
Life and writings
1934 born in Cleveland
Graduated from Harvard University in 1954
Graduated from Yale University in 1956
1960 Taught Harvard University, teaching French and comparative literature
1961 "Sartre: The Origin of a Style"
Use phenomenological methods to analyze the stylistic style and ideological characteristics of Sartre, a leftist master, leftist theorist and litterateur. The purpose is to correct a narrow critical method derived from Russian formalism and structuralism
1967 Taught at University of California, San Diego
1971 "Marxism and Form: Dialectical Literary Theory in the 20th Century"; thesis "Meta-Criticism"
Western Marxism since Lukács was reviewed, and Benjamin, Adorno, Marcuse and others were analyzed. The purpose was to use the German speculative tradition to combat the positivist methods of the British and American New Criticism at that time, and to propose the methodology of "dialectical criticism."
1972 "The Cage of Language: A Critique of Structuralism and Russian Formalism"
Raising the ideological issue of language criticism
1981 "The Political Unconscious: Narrative as Social Symbolic Act"
All literary texts can be seen as a kind of political unconscious; All literary texts, especially narrative texts, are a social symbolic act. Therefore, all literary works can find their roots and causes in society.
"Marxism and Form", "The Cage of Language", "Political Unconscious"
The trilogy known as Jameson-Marxist cultural criticism
1984 "Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism"
After the 1980s, Jameson's research entered postmodernism. This book is regarded as his manifesto into postmodernism
1985. Taught at Duke University, and later went to Peking University to give lectures for more than three months. His speech was later compiled into "Postmodernism and Cultural Theory"
1986 "Third World Literature Beyond the Capitalist Era"
a model of postcolonial analysis
There is an important concept in Jameson’s postcolonial theory: National Prophecy of the Third World. He used Lu Xun's "Diary of a Madman" as the object of analysis to study the relationship between third world national literature, and concluded that all third world texts are national fables, trying to confront and suppress the first world. In the process, one's own political unconsciousness is reflected.
1988. "The Ideology of Theory." It is a collection of 17 of his papers from 1971 to 1986; "History and Class Consciousness: An Unfinished Project"
1991 Published a monograph of the same name as in 1984, which was praised as the best critical book in the United States.
1998 "The Cultural Turn". Composed of 8 of his papers
Perry Anderson: "Jameson's best book"—one of the best of his postmodern works
2003 "Single Modernity"
2015 Came to Peking University to give a speech
political unconscious theory
"Marxism and Form: Dialectical Literary Theory in the Twentieth Century"
object of criticism
The mechanistic theory of vulgar Marxism
The limitations of empiricism in "New Criticism"
Lukács "Theory of the Novel"
novel theory Basic point
Ancient Greek epics failed to adapt to modern society and disappeared
The literary style of the novel, as a substitute for the epic, emerged with the rise of capitalist society and assumed the narrative function of the epic.
But the narrative of the novel is fragmented and uncertain
novel theory question
Lukács attempted to establish a "typology"
Ignore the relationship between content and form
Basic theory: content and form are inseparable
Theoretical source
Hegelian Dialectics
"New Marxism" based on Hegelian dialectics
Theoretical supplement
Stylistic forms have their own development logic and will undergo diachronic evolution.
Jameson: Not only the stylistic form, but the content also has its own development logic
Theoretical summary
Content and form are inseparable
inner form
Form is intrinsic and follows its own logic of development
Content and form are inseparable
Theoretical Deepening: "Meta-Criticism"
theoretical deepening
Connect the previous and the next
"The Cage of Language: A Critique of Structuralism and Russian Formalism"
Criticism of Structural Linguistics (Saussurean Linguistics)
advantage
limitations
Critique of Russian Formalism
advantage
limitations
Summarize
Defamiliarization/freshness not only comes from form, but also from many contents
Russian formalism only paid attention to the formal issues of language, but did not go into the content.
Critique of French Structuralism
advantage
Pay attention to the formation system and establishment pattern of the text, emphasizing the integrity
limitations
Structuralist criticism is still more or less static.
Only a part of the work can be analyzed as a whole, so it is a static wholeness
It is impossible to analyze a work as a whole
Summarize
"Political Unconscious: Narrative as Social Symbolic Act"
The basic idea of "Political Unconscious"
Theoretical Framework of Dialectical Criticism
The theoretical application of dialectical criticism
Dialectical Criticism "Marxist Hermeneutics"
Theoretical basis
Lukács's Hegelian Marxism
Althusser's Structuralist Marxism
Methodological Principles of Dialectical Criticism
Totalization: emphasizing the wholeness (totality) and also emphasizing the plurality in the whole
Intermediation: Emphasize the role of text and start from the text
Historicization: the core of thought. Emphasizes the diachronic study of texts in a synchronic structural whole, combined with social and historical backgrounds
Summarize
political unconscious
The Dilemma of Historicism
Past solutions to the dilemma of historicism
Cultural Relics Research
ontological historicism
Structural Typology: A Marxist Analysis
Nietzschean anti-historicism
political unconscious
The meaning of political unconsciousness
The political unconscious is the collective unconscious desires or political fantasies of social groups or class collectives projected by texts or narratives
Dialectical Criticism: Revealing the Political Unconscious
Three horizons of dialectical criticism
Political horizon: the text is read as a socially symbolic act
Social Horizon: The text is read as a site for confrontational dialogue between competing social classes.
Historical perspective: the text is examined within the antagonistic structure of the entire human mode of production
Specific operation method
Analyzing form: focusing on the relationship between form and social reality
Analysis content: Focus on exploring the deep meaning structure of social reality in the text
Demonstration with examples: Narrative (form) and content of Conrad's "Lord Jim"
form
content
Summarize
postmodern theory
The purpose of postmodernism research
Further expanding Marxist literary theory into a cultural theory
To counter postmodernist and poststructuralist attacks on Marxism
Uncovering the cultural logic of late capitalism
theoretical resources
Lukács’s Hegelian Marxism
Mandel's theory of bourgeois stages
Althusser's social hierarchy theory
poststructuralism
cultural characteristics of postmodernism
Cultural forms (characteristics) of capitalism
cultural characteristics of postmodernism
1. Flattening of deep patterns: Postmodernist works flatten all deep patterns and flatten everything
2. The disappearance of historical consciousness
3. fragmentation of subject
4. The disappearance of the sense of distance
"Cognitive Identity"
Jameson proposed the concept of "cognitive identity". However, Jameson did not clearly justify his initiative. nor has any particular identification strategy been proposed for use in postmodern spaces
Marxist Cultural Revolution Strategy
Marxism has “semantic priority”
"Cultural Revolution"
The historical subjects who are best able to discern moments of cultural revolution or social change are the oppressed classes
9. Jameson: The Allegorical Theory of Third World Nations
Theoretical background: Originated from Eco’s culture conflict model theory
culture conflict model theory
conquer
enlightenment
destroy
plunder
comminicate
The application of cultural conflict model theory from the perspective of postcolonialism
"Allegorical" theory
The nature of allegory
Benjamin’s theory of “allegory”
The difference between symbol and allegory
Jameson's "Allegory" Theory
The essence of allegory: the representational theory of "knowing that something is impossible but doing it" - reconstructing the totality of society in a fragmented and differentiated way
The emergence of allegory in modern society: stemming from the fragmentation of capitalist society
The fragmentation of modern capitalist society
The split between realism and modernism
The reason for the split
Revolutionary Ways to Reconstruct Texts: The Master-Slave Dialectic
"Third World National Fable"
What does Jameson mean by the Third World?
National allegory: Third world texts are allegorical and are a kind of national allegory.
Example analysis - Lu Xun's novels
"Diary of a Madman"
"medicine"
"The True Story of Ah Q"
Summarize
The Difference Between First World and Third World Intellectuals
The first world: confined to majors and studies. It makes no sense to Jameson
He is both a cultural intellectual and a political intellectual - a cultured person and a political fighter. Gramsci-like "organic intellectuals"
Summary: National languages help to reconstruct the literature and culture of the first world, reflecting the subjectivity problem of reconstructing postmodern discourse.
Reflection and Evaluation
affim
The theory of national allegory provides an important dimension of thinking - examining works from the perspective of the nation-state, which means that works that appear to represent personal desires actually reflect the entire nation-state.
Therefore, all literary texts must be "historicized" and pay attention to the historical background in which the text was born.
negative
Jameson fails to explain how politically effective this kind of fiction really is? What is its relationship to the power of orthodox culture to co-opt?
Jameson falls into a logical paradox
10. Spivak: Subaltern Studies and Postcolonial Criticism
Life and writings
1942. Born into a middle-class family in Calcutta, India. At this time the British still colonized India. In 1947, the Indian nation became independent, but post-colonialism in a cultural sense still controlled India invisibly. Therefore, Spivak can be said to have experienced the transition from colonialism to postcolonialism.
1955. Admitted to Calcutta University, majoring in English Literature
1692 Graduated from Cornell University with a master's degree and studied for a doctorate in comparative literature. Studied under Paul de Man, a representative of deconstructionism and Yale School
1967 PhD thesis "The Great Wheel: Several Stages of Development of Lyrical Voice in Yeats' Poems". At this time she began to get in touch with Derrida, mainly studying his "On Philology"
1676 Started translating "On Philology"
The translator's preface written in the translation shows her understanding of deconstruction, so she is regarded as a deconstructionist, and her preface is also regarded as an important entry point for studying Derrida.
1978 "Feminism and Critical Theory"
1981 "French Feminism within the Framework of Internationalism"
1985 "The Study of Subaltern People: Deconstructing Historiography"; "Three Women's Texts and Criticism of Imperialism"
1987 "In the World of Others"
1988 "Can the people at the bottom speak?" 》
1993 "Beyond the Teaching Machine"
1999 Collection of essays "Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward the Disappearing History of the Present"
2003 Essay Collection "The Death of a Discipline"
2006 Came to Tsinghua University and Beijing Language and Culture University to give lectures, and later published a collection of essays "The Asia of Others"
2012 "Aesthetic Education in the Global Era"
Deconstruction Theory and Deconstruction Practice
Deconstructive strategies for the “other” (decentralized status factors)
Against the Arrogance of Centrism
Abandoning personal privileges: mainly reflected in her feminist thoughts
Adopt deconstructive reading: many deconstructive possibilities can be found in literary works
Deconstruction of Kant’s Thoughts
Kant's "Theory of the Sublime"
Deconstruction of aesthetic commonality
Subaltern Study ("Subaltern Study")
Reflections on Feminist Theory
Rethinking Strategies: Deconstructing Feminism through Marxism and Freudian Theory
Marxist Perspective: Re-examining the nature and history of alienation, labor and wealth creation in the light of women’s labor and reproduction – women bring surplus value to men
Freudian angle: Freud's famous definition of the nature of female sexuality is penis envy, which is incomplete and contemptuous of women. In fact, the nature of human beings is the interaction of "castration anxiety" and "penis jealousy"
From feminism to postcolonialism: Spivak intervenes historical, political, and psychological factors in feminism, thereby steering the issue towards racism and postcolonialism
Summarize
Criticism of Kristeva and Jameson
Reflections on Kristeva's "On Chinese Women"
In Kristeva's research on Chinese women, real Chinese women do not exist and are silent. As silent objects, they seem to look at the "Western invasion" with envy.
Reflections on Jameson's Allegory of Third World Nations
National fables only supplement and reflect on first world literature in a way that cares about the third world. In fact, it is still an act of constructing the third world as the "other"
criticism of feminism
The "silence" problem of third world women: Traditional feminist criticism has a "new imperialist operating mechanism" to control third world women, so third world women are silent
The "other" problem of third world women: The starting point of traditional feminist research is to define third world women as "others" and forget the diversity of third world women.
People's Studies
Common people and proletariat
Reflections on the discourse of common people
Indian "Common People Research" Group: Some intellectuals in India who have received higher education from the West
Reflections on India’s “Common People Research” Group
Colonial Discourse Criticism Practice
Reasons for criticism
Critical Practice: "Three Women's Texts and the Critique of Imperialism"
Criticism Method: Dissolution Center
Focus of criticism: focus on race and nationalism in feminist literature, and the process of how the third world is operated by the hegemonic ideology of the first world
Postcolonial Criticism of Charlotte Bronte's "Jane Eyre"
Feminist traits
postcolonial deconstruction
The family/anti-family binary
Legal family: Rochester and Bertha's family
Anti-family: Rochester and Jane Eyre
European civilization/Third World barbarism binary opposition
The binary opposition of male hegemony/female weakness
Summary: All the unions between the two and the final happy ending stem from Bertha's madness and death. Furthermore, it stems from the denial of the "other" of third world women
Postcolonial Criticism of Joan Rhys's "The Endless Sea of Algae"
11. Homi Bhabha: Hybridity Theory and Identity Issues
Life and writings
Born in Mumbai, India in 1949, he is said to be of Persian descent
Graduated from Bombay University in 1970
1974 Obtained a master's degree from Oxford University and studied with Terry Eagleton for his Ph.D.
2001 Came to Harvard University to become a professor
2002 Came to Tsinghua University and delivered a special speech "Vulnerability: A New Globalization"
2010 Came to Peking University and gave a speech "Humanities in the Global Transition Period"
write
1994. "The Positioning of Culture" (Collected Essays)
Editor-in-Chief
"Nation and Narrative"
Co-edited
"The Colonizer and the Colonized"
"Cosmopolitanism"
Said: Continuing the Conversation
Postcolonial Theory Resources
Reflections on traditional postcolonial theory
Doubts about Fanon
Fanon: "Black Skin, White Mask" (1952)
Homi Bhabha's Questions: "Questioning Identity"
Summary: The construction of identity is not one-way identification, but alienation. There is no discourse that can directly colonize and assimilate others.
Doubts about Said
Said’s basic point of view: The East is the constructed East
Homi Baba’s Questions
Psychoanalysis: An analysis of fetishism
fetishism
From fetishism to colonial issues
Foucault's discourse theory and Derrida's deconstruction theory
Foucault: The more content a statement has, the stronger its configuration
Derrida: Characteristics of Writing
The hybridity of postcolonial discourse
The Proposition of Hybridity Theory
Introduced by the memoirs of Indian missionaries
Introduced by Conrad "Heart of Darkness"
Further Discussion: Why does the symbol "English book" appear repeatedly in colonial culture? Why does it symbolize some kind of hope and progress?
The hybridity of colonial discourse
The ambiguity of cultural identity
The contradictions and divisions of colonial discourse
The breakdown of binary oppositions
Colonial discourse never flows in one direction, but there are selective acceptances by the colonies.
The authority of colonial discourse can be established because of the purity of colonial discourse itself
Ways to re-establish the authority of people’s discourse: Re-establish symbols that can represent one’s own culture
hybrid critical strategies
Simulation: The process of cultural colonization is a simulation process
The third space: a mixed space, a space without binary opposition
Identity negotiation: Emphasis on the mixing and negotiation of different identities to reflect the fluidity of identity
Reflections on Homi Bhabha’s Theory
value
criticize
gilbert
Ahmed: "The Politics of Cultural Postcoloniality"
ignore class issues
The hybrid space contains the underlying logic of consumerism
Derek: Hybridity ignores specific context
"The Postcolonial Smell: Third World Criticism in the Era of Global Capitalism"
12. The theoretical genealogy of feminism
Overview of Feminist Theory
The goals of feminism
Patriarchy/patriarchal system
Feminism at its core: Dismantling patriarchy
From biological sex to the power relations behind gender, to the constructive role of cultural differences in gender
Three aspects of feminism
Feminist thought: trends of the times, ideas
Feminist creation and theory: Representing women in artistic works and literary theory
Feminist politics: conducting a range of social movements
The theoretical basis of feminism
Marxism
Psychoanalysis: The involvement of "sex" makes feminism unexpectedly involved
Deconstruction
Feminist Scholars in Action
Reflect on the current situation and position of women in society
Sorting out, sorting out, and discarding male-dominated norms and themes
Create a classic for women
Connect feminism with a variety of different discourses (such as psychoanalysis, race theory, postcolonial theory, ecocriticism, etc.) to form a more dynamic discourse network
Feminist issues of concern
Biological sex (sex) and social gender (gender)
Gender Essentialism and Gender Constructionism
Subject and object, self and the other
The goals of feminist literary criticism
Replenish
The Creation of Sex: Body and Gender from Ancient Greece to Freud
John Berger's "Ways of Seeing"
How to appreciate art: watching
Gender issues in art
The development of feminist theory
The origins of feminism
feminism = feminism = women's liberation
7th century BC
Criticizing the irrationality of education
criticize marriage
first wave of feminism
Mid-19th century-1960s
Core: Seeking common ground in differences
Emphasize that women, like men, should enjoy equal and the same "human rights"
Fighting for women’s “citizenship rights”
representative work
Taylor "Women's Suffrage"
Bachofen's "Maternal Rights"
Mill "The Subordination of Women"
Juliet Mitchell "Women: The Longest Revolution"
1929 Virginia Woolf, A Room of One’s Own
1949 Simone Beauvoir, The Second Sex
The reason why a woman is a woman is not born, but constructed
In the long historical evolution, why have women become the "second sex"? Why subordinate to men?
How does the status of the second sex limit women's development? How should we respond?
second wave feminism
1960s-1980s
Core: seeking differences in common ground
major schools
liberal feminism
Struggle for equality between men and women; Opposition to "special care"
activist feminism
Women should not be responsible for reproductive functions
socialist feminism
Emphasis on women entering society and emancipating themselves from the family
postmodern feminism
All women should not be defined in an essential way
cultural feminism
Femininity is superior to masculinity
gender separation feminism
Only when men and women are completely separated can women be free
cyborg feminism
Use machines to evolve women and achieve equality between men and women
psychoanalytic feminism
Analyze women's subconscious
sexual liberation feminism
Fight for equality and eliminate male chauvinism
two camps
French Pie
It is important to construct an ideology that belongs to women themselves
Anglo-American school
Write about women’s own unique experiences and then present those experiences
Summarize
third wave feminism
1990s-present
Core: seeking differences within differences
Not simply discussing sexual issues between men and women, but paying more attention to marginalized women’s issues and internal differences among women
representative work
Bellica Walker: "Searching for Truth: Feminism's Confessions and Transformations"
Richards: Girly Manifesto: Girls, Feminism and the Future
Basic thinking
The purpose of feminism is first and foremost equal rights, not equal to gender war
Feminism should not only talk about women’s interests but not women’s responsibilities
The advancement of feminism varies in different regions
Don’t use feminism as a group-specific standard to imprison individuals.
13. French Feminist Critical Theory
Cixous's "Body Writing"
Sisu's life
1937 Born into a Jewish family in French colonial Algeria
1968 PhD thesis "Joyce's Exile"
1975 "The Laughter of Medusa"
1976 "Castration or Beheading"
The particularity of Cixous feminism
Feminism means the exclusion of men and another kind of autocracy, and she consciously alienates herself from any political ideas and political groups, so she transcends feminism to some extent
body writing
The development of physical problems
Medieval Christianity: Soul and body are separated and opposed
In the 17th century, Descartes said: "I think, therefore I am", still adhering to the dualistic relationship of body/mind
At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Nietzsche: The body is the foundation of human existence
In the 20th century, Merleau-Ponty: The body is a kind of preconsciousness, so the body occupies a central position
20th Century, Foucault: Body Politics
The purpose of body writing
Beyond dualism
Writing is a way to release the body
The elimination of male-centrism
Subverting the patriarchal culture centered on men
Theoretical connotation of body writing
Women should use their own bodies as the main narrative object
body writing content
Writing about women’s bodies, desires, experiences, and feelings
The impact of body writing on China
Theoretical Limitations of Body Writing
In fact, body writing is just a slogan, but fails to propose a specific and practical writing method.
Therefore, people will inevitably produce deviations in the process of practicing this theory.
Hermaphroditism: Another kind of androgyny
Woolf's "androgyny"
Sisu: Another Androgyny
Premise: Ensure the characteristics of women in their biological sex
Hermaphroditism is a characteristic unique to women
Summarize
Cixous tried to make writing revolutionary, but she gave women's writing too heavy a mission.
Erigaray's Philosophical Critique
The life and writings of Erigaray
1973. "The Language of the Lunatic"
1974. "The Endoscope of the Other Woman"
1977. "This Nature Is Not One"
Female gender characteristics: effeminacy
"The Endoscope of the Other Woman" → A Critique of Psychoanalysis
A critique of the rationalist tradition of Western philosophy since Plato
female language features
1977 "This Nature Is Not One"
Theoretical basis: Lacan’s unconscious and language theory
Feminist refutation of Lacan
Language as a means of maintaining world order is a product of men and a tool of patriarchal thinking.
female language features
Core: The self-positioning of men and women in language leads to gender differences
Basic point
Women’s self-expression in language is lacking
Seeking a language unique to women
Women’s unique language expression is irrational, illogical and divergent in thinking
The value of women’s bodies in the market
14. American Feminist Critical Theory
An Overview of American Pie Feminist Criticism
The first stage
Late 1960s - early 1970s
feature
Anti-theoretical tendencies: men’s complicity with theory
Deconstruction: Deconstructing sexism in texts by male writers
second stage
Mid to late 1970s
feature
Rediscover the works of female writers: Kate Chopin's "The Awakening"; Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper"
Constructing the history of women’s literature: systematizing women’s literature
The third phase
Late 1970s to present
feature
The Rise of Black Women's Criticism
The Rise of Feminist Criticism of Asian, South American, Native American, and Other Ethnic Americans
Kate Millett's "Sexual Politics"
The meaning of "sexual politics"
Gender relationship is a power relationship
The Origins of Gender Inequality: Patriarchy
The real differences between the sexes are cultural (economic, educational)
The historical development stage of "sexual politics"
1830s - 1960s
The first stage: the revolutionary development period of sexual politics/early women’s movement period
Failure to touch the deep social forms and structures → failure
Phase Two: The Counter-Revolutionary Period of Sexual Politics
Literary Reflections on "Sexual Politics"
Lawrence
Henry Miller
norman mailer
Jean Genet
Summarize
value
Made seminal contributions to the theory and practice of women's criticism
defect
Ignoring the literary nature of the work and simplifying the relationship between the author, text and reality
"Female Criticism" by Elaine Showalter
Showalter's life and writings
1941. Born into a Jewish family in the United States
1971. "Female Liberation and Literature"
America's first women's literature textbook
1977. "Literatures of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing"
Discover female writers who have been buried in history and reconstruct a history of female literature and female literary tradition.
1979. "Toward a Feminist Poetics"
Proposed the concept of female criticism earlier
1981. "Feminist Criticism in the Wilderness"
Further improve feminist criticism, implement feminist criticism into specific literary criticism practices, and then broaden the methods of literary criticism. Therefore, feminist theory no longer remains at the level of slogans, but has become practical. This is Showalter's contribution
1985. "Women·Madness·English Literature"
Trying to construct a new way of criticism - hysterical criticism, reflecting her influence by Freud
1990. "Sex and Anarchy"
1991. "Sisters' Choice"
Representative works of the third wave of feminism
2001. "Creating the Female Self: Constructing the Female Intellectual Heritage"
The Construction of Women's Literary History: "Their Own Literature"
Core: Digging into the Feminist Literary Tradition
Three stages of female writers’ creation
Feminine stage (feminine stage) → Seeking common ground in differences
Stage of Feminism → Seeking Differences in Sameness
Female Stage→Seeking Differences from Differences
Summarize
Have unique contributions, but may also fall into the limitation of "over generalization"
The construction of female criticism
"Toward a Feminist Poetics"
Two modes of feminist criticism
Women as Readers: Emphasizing the Meaning, Symbols of Texts
Women as writers: emphasizing literary production
The Practice of Criticism: A Criticism of the Beginning of Thomas Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge
"Feminist Criticism in the Wilderness"
An analysis of feminism in various countries
British feminism: leaning towards Marxism, emphasizing oppression
French feminism: bias towards psychoanalysis and emphasis on repression
American Feminism: Favoring Words and Texts, Emphasizing Expression
Four models of feminist critical theory
Models of Biological Criticism: Studying the Relationship between Gender Differences and Texts
Model of Linguistic Criticism: Studying Gender Differences in Language Use
Psychoanalytic Criticism Model: Studying the Writer's Psychology and Creative Process
Cultural criticism model: studying the relationship between gender and society, economy, and history
advocating for the establishment of a female critique
Theoretical basis: Women’s culture model proposed by anthropologist Adenauer
The meaning of wilderness
establishing a feminine critique
The developmental stages of female criticism
Androgyny Poetics: Emphasizing the Commonality of Men and Women
Feminist aesthetics: emphasizing female creation
Feminist Criticism: Highlighted Reading
Feminine origin criticism (postmodernism theory): not studying women as a whole, but emphasizing internal differences among women
Gender theory: cultural (beyond biological) gender issues
15. Greenblatt: New Historicism Theory
new historicism criticism
Target audience: Formalist criticism and British and American New Criticism
Theoretical basis
Foucault’s theory of knowledge (discontinuity and fractured view of history) and power discourse theory
Goltz's cultural anthropology theory
British ‘Cultural Materialism’
New criticism; deconstruction; hermeneutics; Western Marxism; postcolonialism, etc.
Basic point
Breaking the binary opposition structure of text and history
Differences from historical nihilism
Differences from traditional historicism
Basic theory
Emphasis on the textuality of history (historicity and textuality have a restrictive relationship, and both have equal status)
The complexity and multiplicity of single-line history and the lowercaseization of capitalized history (discovering history that is obscured and silenced by grand history)
The subjectification, subjectivity, ideology of objective history and the contingency of inevitable history
The Ideology of History and Literature
critical method
Emphasize that critics should use their own subjective consciousness
Pursue "anecdotism" and explore deep cultural significance
Capturing historical reality
"Contextualization" and "lifestyle" of historical interpretation
Greenblatt's life and writings
1943. Born
1969.Graduated PhD
1975. Proposed the concept of "New Historicism", but did not explicitly discuss it
1980. "Self-fashioning in the Renaissance: From More to Shakespeare"
Important works that use New Historicism to study literary texts
1982. In the preface of the magazine "Wengen", the concept of "new historicism" was used
1983. Chief editor of "Representation"
1988. "Shakespeare's Discussion"
1990. "Condemn to Disaster"; "Learn to Curse"
1997.Goed to Harvard University to teach
2000. Received the title of Honorary Humanities Professor at Harvard University
Largely because of the interdisciplinary nature of New Historicism
2001. "Hamlet in Purgatory"
Renaissance Studies: "Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare"
Research Background: Targets of New Historicism
Research intention: Break the binary structure of history/text and present an interactive view of literature-culture-history
Research purpose: anti-formalism, anti-panculturalism, anti-postmodernism
self-shaping
Summary: Literature, culture, and history shape each other, and self, culture, and history shape each other.
cultural poetics
Concept definition
Literary texts are products of cultural politics
Basic Features
interdisciplinarity
political attributes of culture
historical ideology
cultural criticism of cultural poetics
The connotation of cultural criticism
Cultural poetics is a cultural theoretical practice of text interpretation
Cultural poetics bridges the boundaries between literary texts and non-literary texts
Cultural poetics transitions from big history to small history, focusing on micro details and looking for new concepts.
Specific strategies and basic practices of cultural criticism
Specific strategies: Excavating marginalized and suppressed historical and cultural factors on a large scale
Specific examples
The intertextual relationship between the painting "The Diplomat" and More's text "Utopia"
Stories from Montaigne's "Essays", Dufour's story "Hermaphrodites", Shakespeare's text "Twelfth Night" intertextuality
Political Criticism of Cultural Poetics: "Inclusion" Theory ("Entrapment Model")
Give examples
Shakespeare's "Henry IV"
Connotation: The resistance (subversion) effect of drama is always "contained" by the structure of the drama itself
in conclusion
Tong Qingbing's Cultural Poetics
Open both text and history dimensions at the same time
Evaluation and Problems of New Historicism (Cultural Poetics)
evaluate
It embodies a dialectical perspective on history, that is, a dialectical understanding of the relationship between text and history.
Has an interdisciplinary hybrid quality and at the same time has a critical stance
Interpret works from two dimensions: literary and non-literary (more of a cultural dimension)
Not yet finalized, with many possibilities
question
Attitude towards history: If New Historicism emphasizes the textuality of history, In fact, while bridging the differences between the two, it also constructs the differences between the two.
As a research method, the ideology implicit in New Historicism
16. Hayden White's Metahistory and Historical Poetics
Hayden White's life and writings
1928.Born
1966. The paper "The Burden of History" opened the study of new historicism
1971. Published a series of papers related to New Historicism, such as "Croce and Baker: Notes on Evidence of Influence"; "Critical Culture"; "Irrationality and the Problem of Historical Knowledge"
1972. Paper "Wild Forms: Archeology of Thought"; "What is a Historical System"; "Interpretation in History"; "Narrative Structure of History"
"Wild" - Anthropology
"Archaeology of Thought" - Foucault: Archeology of Knowledge
1973. Book "Metahistory: The Historical Imagination of Nineteenth-Century Europe"
In the introduction to the book, he proposed the concept of "metahistory" and believed that the deep structure of history has a poetic quality.
1978. Book "Discourse Metonymy"
1999. Book "Metaphorical Realism"
2004. Visited Fudan University
Meta-history
The ideological background of metahistory: the crisis of historical epistemology
Speculative philosophy of history: emphasizing reflection on the historical process
Analytic-critical philosophy of history: emphasizing the intellectual nature of history
metahistorical definition
Emphasis on historical interpretive frameworks
The emphasis is on the way history is told
metahistorical theoretical system
"Historical Text as Textual Fiction": History has a textual structure
The literary nature of the narrative structure of historical texts
From objective historical view and subjective historical view to historical events and historical facts
Redefine the relationship between reality and fiction
Text construction method of historical narrative
textual construction of history
historical text construction
Summary: Hayden White reveals that different historical narratives will have different plot structures and meaning patterns, Directly reveals the literary nature of historical texts
"Discourse Metonymy": History has a poetic structure
History as a linguistic structure: Treating history as a linguistic structure, only in this way can it be possible to grasp the historical reality
The core of language structure: metonymy
Three Interpretative Strategies of Historical Discourse
Episodic Narrative: Many rhetorical devices are used in storytelling.
Formal argument: Formalism, mechanism, organicism, contextualism, etc. all adopt this method
Theory of Ideology: Different ideologies have different interpretive frameworks, and use this framework to make a self-considered reasonable discussion of historical development.
Four expressions of historical discourse
metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony
Give examples
An analysis of the historical narrative of A.J. Taylor
Summarize
Text is the starting point and final destination of history
The linguistic characteristics of historical writing determine the textuality of history
The meaning of historical texts is not transparent
cultural critical theory
The cultural core concepts of the Enlightenment
The establishment of rationality brings about the tendency of cultural despotism
The framework of Marxist literary theory
classical marxism
Early days
marx
Engels
Successor
Lenin, Plekhalov, Lunacharsky, Gorky, Merin, Bukharin
Western Marxism
Early days
Lukacs
Gramsci
Frankfurt School
first generation
Benjamin, Adorno, Horkheimer
second generation
Habermas
psychoanalytic marxism
Fromm, Reich
structuralism marxism
Althusser
Goldman
Macheret
existential marxism
Bloch
Sartre
Merleau-Ponty
New Anglo-American Marxism
raymond williams
Eagleton
jameson