Natural phenomena: sun, moon, mountains, rivers, rain, snow, wind

Everyday objects: tables, plates, cups, umbrellas, gloves

Mental phenomena: psychology, consciousness, thoughts, feelings, sadness, happiness

Perceptual understanding: Snow is solid precipitation formed by the polymerization of oil ice crystals

Rational understanding: Snow is a kind of white falling in winter, light and beautiful like flowers.

The understanding of things first comes from the perceptual knowledge brought by the senses, and then the rational knowledge brought by the objective explanation

Connotation: (commodity) is a product of labor used for exchange

Extension: The types of (commodities) specifically include mobile phones, computers, drinks, clothing, books, etc.

Individual concepts (only one extension): Beijing, Seoul, Hawaii (city)... China, the United States, Russia (country)

Universal concepts (large number of denotations): escape, sing, exercise (verb)... lamp, water cup, student (noun)

Limited concept: countries (China, the United States, the United Kingdom...the number is limited)

Entity concept (independent existence): Forbidden City, Yangtze River, Beijing, Chongqing

Attribute concepts (reflecting the attributes of things): fair, brave, strong, kind, friendly, hostile, less than, equal to, containing, etc...

Positive concepts (affirmative nature, emphasis on presence): backward, beautiful, excellent, gentle, vicious, despicable, lazy, etc...

Negative concepts (negative nature, emphasis on nothing): unadvanced, improper, illegal, unjust, unscented, etc...

The concept of collection (two or more individuals combine to form a whole): The complete works of Lu Xun include collections of essays, novels, essays, poems, etc.

Non-collective concept (the collective reflects the individual): Our school’s singing team is all art students

Same relationship: Zhengzhou - the provincial capital of Henan

True inclusion relationship: (genus concept) novel and (species concept) Dream of Red Mansions

Truth is contained in relationships: (kind of concept) Dream of Red Mansions and (genus of concept) novels

Cross-relationships: young people (including students) and students (including young people)

Completely different relationships: good people and evil people (the denotation and connotation of the two do not overlap at all)

Reveal the connotation of concepts and provide essential explanations and descriptions of things

Substantive definition: A horse is a mammal

Word definition: The six arts refer to etiquette, music, archery, chastity, calligraphy, and numeracy.

Definitions should generally be clear and concise, using affirmative sentence patterns and not vague. For example, it should not be said that it is very cold today, but it is not hot today.

He saw the wrong person (one way is to express that he has bad eyesight and he has seen the wrong person, the other way is to express that he has recognized the wrong person).

Caring about the employees of the company (one is to express that employees care about the company, and the other is to express that they care about the employees in the company)

Imported cars (one expresses cars imported from abroad, the other expresses imported cars)

All (quantitative terms) children (subject terms) are (associative terms) innocent (predicate terms)

It is composed of quantity term ➕ main term ➕ joint term ➕ predicate term

Zhang Ming and Li Ming are classmates

Chen Hong and Li Li are not colleagues

She is young and beautiful

It is composed of couplets➕connectives➕logical forms

Only with the right time, right place, and right people can we win

Once the river embankment breaks, the consequences will be disastrous

Flowers will not bloom unless there is enough light

Only those who pass the physical examination can take the college entrance examination

It is difficult for college students to find jobs nowadays, so some college students have not found jobs.

Zhang Lin likes all comedy movies. Garfield is a comedy movie, so Zhang Lin likes Garfield

Zhuge Liang is the embodiment of wisdom, so Zhuge Liang is wise

Arguments are one of the elements of argumentative essays, arguments are one of the elements of argumentative essays, and argumentation is also one of the elements of argumentative essays. Therefore, argumentative essays include three elements: arguments, arguments, and arguments.

A rhombus is a type of quadrilateral, and a square is a type of rhombus, so a square is a type of quadrilateral.

If the script is good, he will participate in it. If the script is good, he will participate in it.

Zhang Lin likes all comedy movies. Garfield is a comedy movie, so Zhang Lin likes Garfield

The Hakka dialect is represented by Meixian, Guangdong, the Fujian dialect is represented by Fuzhou dialect, and the Cantonese dialect is represented by Cantonese, so people in each dialect area have their own representative dialects.

A rhombus has a set of adjacent sides that are equal, and its diagonals are perpendicular to each other and bisect each other. A square also has a set of adjacent sides that are equal, so the diagonals of a square are also perpendicular to each other and bisect.

The premise implies the conclusion. If the premise is true, the conclusion must also be true.

The premise does not imply a clear conclusion: for example, each place has its own dialect. To sum up, there is no clear conclusion.

Writers are all intellectuals (major premise), Qian Zhongshu is a writer (minor premise), so Qian Zhongshu is an intellectual (conclusion (Through two categorical judgments, a new judgment is introduced)

A syllogism can only be composed of the major term, the middle term, and the minor term. It cannot have four items. If there are too many items, it will be impossible to draw a conclusion.

The middle term must be distributed at least once in the premise. Distribution refers to determining the extension range and quantity of the subject and predicate.

Reasoning based on guesswork, sometimes you can guess and judge based on experience, as a reference, but you should still insist on seeking truth from facts, guess, judge, and reason based on objective reality to reach reliable conclusions

The Dream of Red Mansions is a novel, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a novel, The Water Margin is a novel, and Journey to the West is a novel. These four novels are the Four Great Classics of China, so the Four Great Classics of China are novels.

Chinese is the communication tool for Chinese people, English is the communication tool for Americans, and German is the most important communication tool for Germans. Therefore, language is the most important communication tool for human beings.

1➕100~101, 2➕99~101, 3➕98~101, it can be inferred that all such regular algorithms are equal to 101

Xiao Ming's average score is less than 80 points, Xiao Guang's average score is less than 80 points, and Xiao Hong's average score is less than 80 points. Xiao Ming, Xiao Hong, and Xiao Guang are all students in Class Three, so the average score of Class Three students is not to 80 minutes

Simple enumeration inductive reasoning (the reliability of the conclusion can be verified by finding counterexamples), or by increasing the number. The greater the number of examples, the higher the reliability, and it belongs to empirical reasoning.

Scientific inductive reasoning (speculating on the necessary connections between some objects)

Positive analogy reasoning: Thing A has attribute abcd, thing B has attribute abc, so thing B also has attribute d

Anti-analogy reasoning: Thing A does not have the attribute abcd, and thing B does not have the attribute abc, so thing B does not have the attribute d.

Simulation analogy reasoning: In prototype A, attributes abc and d have an R relationship, and model B is designed to have attribute abc, so in model B, attributes abc and d also have an R relationship.

One is excellent, two is excellent, three is not excellent... One hundred is excellent, so the conclusion possibility is excellent

Similar to the probabilistic reasoning formula

When both A's appear, a will appear. So the appearance of A is the main reason for the appearance of a

When A does not appear, a does not appear. So the non-appearance of A is the main reason why a does not appear.

When both A's appear, a will appear. When A does not appear, a does not appear. So the appearance of A is the main reason for the appearance of a

Logical contradictions are self-contradictory, mutually negating and exclusive judgments, one of which must be false.

Dialectical contradiction is both opposition and unity (although he came in last, he was still successful because he persisted to the end)

Contradiction is sometimes the source and driving force for the development of things: such as positive and negative electricity in electricity

The logical conclusion is obviously contradictory, but on the surface it can be justified. A barber said: I only shave all those people in the city who don't shave themselves, but in fact he still shaves himself because he is not the one who never shaves himself.

Two mutually negating ideas cannot be both false, and one of them must be true, and they cannot be ambiguous, such as saying that they don’t know each other as they should not know. For example, if you injure someone, you are either negligent or intentional. One of these must be true, and it cannot be said to be neither intentional nor negligent.

The reason must be sufficient, and there must be a necessary logical relationship between the reason and the conclusion. A is true because b is true and can deduce a.

Topic: What to prove or disprove

Argument: what to use to argue

Argument method: How to argue

Direct proof: provide real reasons to directly prove its authenticity

Proof by contradiction of indirect proof: first prove that the counter-thesis is false, and then determine that the original thesis is true according to the law of excluded middle

Selective evidence method for indirect proof: using elimination method and elimination method

rebuttal issue

It is a rebuttal method that proves that the opponent's argument is false.

Used to demonstrate that there is no necessary logical relationship between arguments and topics

The topic must be clear and clear about what is to be demonstrated

The topic must be the same before and after, do not try to change the concept or change the topic

The arguments must be true and sufficient, and cannot be based on mere speculation. A large amount of relevant evidence must be collected.

The authenticity of the argument cannot be proved by the topic, otherwise it is easy to make the logical error of circular argument.

Inductive fallacy and deductive fallacy

semantic fallacy, morphological fallacy, pragmatic fallacy

Formal and informal fallacies

For example, "Father comes first before mother". This sentence can have 6 different meanings.

I remembered this sentence. One means I want to get up, and the other means I thought of something.

He plays games whenever he has free time and never wastes a minute: This saying "never waste" is full of fallacy.

The hairdresser asked the customer do you want eyebrows? The customer replied, of course, and the barber shaved off the customer's eyebrows and gave them to the customer...

Intercepting a certain fragment, only looking at the previous sentence without reading the next sentence, without identifying the source of the sentence: Many people know that Edison said that genius is one percent inspiration ➕ 99 percent sweat, and think that diligence is very important. But I didn’t know there was another sentence, inspiration is more important than sweat

Blindly quoting famous quotes, thinking that they are all right. For example, if a celebrity endorses a product, it does not necessarily mean that it is of good quality.

Neglecting correct judgment because of compassion, such as a fake beggar who sells compassion to get money

Tortured to extract confessions, beaten into submission, overpowered by forces to compromise

It is easy to blindly follow the crowd and lack independent judgment and thinking. Sometimes the truth is in the hands of a few people

In life, we need more rational understanding and less reliance on feelings and experience to reduce the occurrence of fallacies.

Hearsay and rumors, without real verification, legends can be used as a reference, but they cannot be used as a basis for facts.

There are many silently quoted sentences in the Analects. The sentence "The furthest distance in the world" was not written by Tagore, but by Zhang Xiaoxian.

A lie becomes the truth after being repeated a hundred times. Don’t believe it just because you have heard it so many times. Learn how to identify it and let the lies stop at the wise.