1950/1960s: End of colonialism in many former colonies and negotiations with militaristic rulers

Late 1960/1970s onwards: Final phase of European decolonization and liberation of authoritarian regimes and movements promoting democracy gaining strength in Asia, Latin America.

Too linear and ideal – does modernization ALWAYS create progress? (Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, 1968)

Economic development and urbanization in some developing/Third World countries lead to bureaucratic-authoritarianism instead (O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism, 1973)

Economic development actually helps more with consolidation of democratic rule as opposed to creating it – survival story (Przeworski, several publications)

Ingelheart provides 4 reasons why modernization theory is problematic

Middle East:

Inherent culture of a society contributes to embedding and acceptance of institutions in a society

Lipset (1994): democracy “requires a supportive culture, the acceptance by the citizenry and political elites, of principles underlying freedom of speech, media, assembly, religion, of the rights of opposition parties, of the rule of law, of human rights , and the like”

Key point:

Cultural Connections:

Realistic impact:

Huntington - Clash of civilisations

4 elements of cultural influence

Democracy is more common in some cultures (Western cultures) that support democratic values ​​(individual liberties, freedom of expression, equality) than in others (Islam, Confucianism)

Economic development does not directly cause democracy, but rather economic development leads to cultural change and the emergence of civic culture, which in turn leads to democracy

more evidence for H2, that civic culture is central to creating and sustaining democracy as opposed to the belief that some cultures are inherently anti-democratic

Agreements between elites and masses to establish democratic institutions via transferring political power to the majority (i.e democratization)

English civil war, Glorious Revolution: resultant restriction of power of monarchy and increasing the power of the parliament

1800s: Period of sustained growth

1832: First Reform Act and introduction of basic voting based on property and income

1867: Second Reform Act with the working class forming the majority

Democracy in Britain:

initial claims of democratic reform post-independence in 1800s was a sham

Rising discontent and unrest led to universal male suffrage in 1912 via the Saenz Pena Law (low inclusion)

Emergence/dominance of Radical Party and failure of the elites’ Conservative Party

Military coup in 1930 to suppress Radicals and return of power to traditional elites

Military coup in 1943 leading to a more redistributive government led by Peron

Military coup in 1955, 1966 à social mobilization leading to proper democratic election in 1973

Military coup in 1976 à eventual defeat of military as a political actor in the Falklands War

1983 and onwards: democracy entrenched

Democracy in Argentina:

Desire for independence —— 1940s/50s characterized by strikes/labour unrest

1959 critical: win by PAP and the subsequent suppression of labor and the Barisan Sosialis

1968: Barisan Sosialis resigned seats, leaving PAP unchallenged till 1980s

Structure of society: lack of traditional elites, weak industrial class and co-opting of media among others, limited demands for greater independence

Democracy in Singapore:

Threats of repression failed and the bargain offered by ruling elite were perceived as too little too late by the protesting masses

Transition to democracy more sudden less stable (as opposed to what is seen in a strategic bargaining model) and can have a possibly destabilizing effect on democracy in Tunisia