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AP Psychology
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The Advanced Placement Psychology (AP Psychology, AP Psych, or APPSY) course and corresponding exam are part of College Board's Advanced Placement Program.
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AP Psychology
Cognition
Memory
Explicit Memories-> conscious memories
Implicit Memories-> unintentional Memories
Three-Box/ Information-Processing Model
Sensory Memory
selective attention
(sensory->Short-term) We encode what we are attending to or what is important to us.
Short-term/ Working memory
Long-term Memory
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Procedural Memory
Levels of Processing Model
Deeply Processed
Shallowly Processed
Retrieval
Recognition
Recall
Ebbinghaus
Primacy Effect-> Beginning of a list
Recency Effect-> End of a list
Serial Position Effect
Problem Solving
Algorithms
Heuristics
Impediments
Rigidity/ Mental Set
The tendency to fall into established thought patterns.
Functional Fixedness
The inability to see a new use for an object.
Confirmation Bias
We tend to look for evidence that continue our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true.
Framing
The way a problem is presented.
Language
Element of Language
Phoneme
Smallest unit of sound used in language.
Morpheme
Smallest unit of meaningful sound
Syntax
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike
Cat & Puzzle Box
Law of effect-> pleasant/unpleasant consequences
instrumental learning
Punishment Vs. Reinforcement
Cognitive Learning
Observational Learning
Bandura
Modeling
Observation
Imitation
Latent Learning
Learning that becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it.
Tolman
Abstract Learning
Insight Learning
Kohler
Chimpanzees and Bananas
Personality
Psychoanalytic/ Freudian Theory
Defense Mechanisms
Repression
Blocking thoughts out from conscious awareness.
Denial
Not accepting the ego-threatening truth.
Displacement
Redirecting one's feeling toward another person or object.
Projection
Believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneself.
Reaction Formation
Expressing the opposite of how one truly feels.
Regression
Returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior.
Rationalization
Coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence.
Intellectualization
Undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic.
Sublimation
Channeling one's frustration toward a different goal.
Healthy Defense Mechanisms
Psychodynamic theories
Trait Theories
Factor Analysis
A statistical technique.Allows researchers to use correlations between traits in order to see which traits cluster together as factors.
Abnormal Psychology
DSM
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Axis I--Clinical Disorders
Depressive Disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorders
Paranoid Schizophrenia
Axis II--Personality and Developmental Disorders
Antisocial
Paranoid
Dependent
Axis III--Medical Conditions
Axis IV--Psychosocial Conditions
Axis V--Global Assessment of Functioning
(GAF): Overall Level of Functioning. score 1~100, the higher the better.
Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
Phobias
Specific Phobia
Intense unwarranted fear of a situation or object.
Agoraphobia
A fear of open, public spaces.
Social Phobia
A fear of a situation in which one could embarrass oneself in public.
(GAD) Generalized Anxiety Disorders
Constant, low-level anxiety.
Panic Disorders
Acute episodes of intense anxiety without any apparent provocation.
(OCD) Obsessive-compulsive disorders
Persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders
Anxiety caused by memories of extremely troubling event.
Cause of Anxiety Disorders
Psychoanalytic
Unresolved, unconscious conflicts.
Behaviorist
Anxiety disorders are learned.
Cognitive
Disorders result from dysfunctional ways of thinking. Anxiety disorder: unhealthy and irrational way of thinking and/ or specific irrational thoughts.
Somatoform Disorders
Occurs when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological symptom, i.e., experiences a physical problem in the absence of any physical cause.
Hypochondriasis
Frequent physical complaints for which medical doctors are unable to locate the cause. Believe that minor problems are indicative of severe physical illness.
Conversion Disorder
People who have conversion disorder will report the existence of a severe physical problem such as paralysis or blindness, and they will, in fact, be unable to move their arm or see.
Cause of Somatoform Disorders
Psychodynamic
Merely outward manifestations of unresolved unconscious conflicts.
Behaviorist
Reinforced for their behavior.
Dissociative Disorders
Disruption in conscious processes
Psychogenic Amnesia
A person cannot remember things and no physiological basis for the disruption in memory can be identified.
Fugue
Amnesia involves unplanned travel.
(DID) Dissociative Identity Disorders
Formerly known as multiple personality disorder, is when a person has several personalities rather than one integrated personality.
Cause of Dissociative Disorders
Psychoanalytical
An extremely traumatic event has been so thoroughly repressed that a split in consciousness results.
Behaviorist
People who have experienced trauma simply find not thinking about it to be rewarding, thus producing amnesia or, in extreme cases, DID.
Mood/ Affective Disorders
Experiences extreme or inappropriate emotions.
Unipolar/ Major Depression Disorder
People who are clinically depressed remain unhappy for more than two weeks in the absence of a clear reason. Losing appetite, fatigue, change in sleeping patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities, and feelings of worthlessness.
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Experienced only during certain time of the year. Treated with light therapy.
Dipolar/ Manic Depression
Involves both depressed and manic episodes. Involves feelings of high energy.
Dysthymic Disorders
Less intenseA period of depressed mood lasting at least two years.
Cause of Mood Disorder
Psychoanalytical
Depression is the product of anger directed inward, loss during the early psychosexual stages, or an overly punitive superego.
learning
Mood disorders bring some kind of reinforcement (e.g., attention or sympathy).
Cognitive
Aaron Beck (Cognitive Triad)
Depression results from unreasonable negative ideas that people have about themselves, their world, and their futures.
Attribution
Attributions that people make about their experiences. (Attribution is an explanation of cause).
Cognitive-Behavioral
Martin Seligman (Learned Helpless)
Dog Electric Shock Experiment Learned helplessness is when one's prior experience have caused that person to view himself or herself as unable to control aspects of the future that are controllable. Results in passivity and depression
Biological
Unipolar Depression
Low level of serotonin
Bipolar Disorder
Too Much Acetylcholine receptors
Depression
Low levels of norepinephrine
Schizophrenic Disorders
Disordered, distorted thinking often demonstrated through delusions and/ or hallucinations.
Delusions
Beliefs that have no basis in reality.
Hallucination
Perceptions in the absence of any sensory stimulations.
Schizophrenia
Disorganized Schizophrenics
Odd Uses of Language
Paranoid Schizophrenia
Delusions of Persecution
Catatonic Schizophrenia
Odd movement
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
Exhibit disordered thinking but no other symptoms
Cause of Schizophrenic Disorders
Biological (Dopamine Hypothesis)
High level of dopamine seem to be associated with schizophrenia.
Antipsychotic Drugs
Side effect (Tardive Dyskinesia)
Parkinson's disease (Opposite of Schizophrenia)
Need dopamine level to get higher. Parkinson's disease's symptom is similar to tardive dyskinesia.
Personality Disorders
Well-established, maladaptive ways of behaving that negatively affect people's ability to function.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Sensation and Perception
Sensation
Vision
Cornea
Protective CoveringFocus the light
Pupil
Shutter of camera Iris controls cornea.
Lens
accommodation: focus light
Retina
In the eye
Cones ->Color
Robs ->black and white
Fovea
Bipolar Cells
Ganglion Cells
Transduction
Translation of incoming stimuli into neural signals.
Color Vision
Trichromatic Theory
Opponent-Process Theory
Perception
The process of understanding and interpreting sensations.
Thresholds
Absolute Threshold
The smallest amount of stimulus we can detect.
Subliminal
Stimuli below our absolute threshold.
Difference Threshold/ just-noticeable threshold
The smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change
Weber's law
The change needed is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus. The more intense the stimulus, the more it will need to change before we notice a difference.
Perceptual Theories
Signal Detection Theory
Investigates the effects of the distractions and interference we experience while perceiving the world.
Response Criteria
False Positive
We think we perceive a stimulus that is not there.
False Negative
Not perceiving a stimulus that is present.
Top-Down Processing
Using background knowledge to fill in gaps in what you perceive.
Schemata
Mental representations of how we expect the world to be.
Perceptual Set
A Predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way.
Bottom-Up Processing
Using only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception.
Constancy
Our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes.
Size Constancy
Shape Constancy
Brightness Constancy
Depth Cues
Monocular Cues
Linear Perspective
Relative Size Cue
Interposition Cue
Shadowing
Binocular Cues
Binocular/ Retinal Disparity
Convergence
State of Consciousness
Drugs
Agonist
Mimic Neurotransmitters
Antagonist
Block neurotransmitters
Simulant
Speed up body processes
Caffeine
Cocaine
Amphetamine
Nicotine
Depressant
Slow down body system
Alcohol
Barbiturate
Anxiolytic
Hallucinogens
LSD
Peyote
Psilocybin
Marijuana
Opiate
Act as agonists for endorphins ) and thus are powerful painkillers and mood elevators.
Morphine
Heroin
Methadone
Codeine
Treatment of Psychological Disorders
Therapy
Psychoanalytic Therapy
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic theorists view the cause of disorders as unconscious conflicts. As a result, their focus is on identifying the underlying cause of the problems.
Freud
Free association
Dream analysis
Humanistic Therapy
Client-centered therapy
Rogers
Free Will
Self-actualize
Client-centered therapy
Unconditioned positive regard
Blanket acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does.
Behavioral Therapy
Systematic desensitization
Wolpe
Systematic Desensitization
Replace the feelings of anxiety with relaxation
Relaxation
Anxiety Hierarchy
Counterconditioning
An unpleasant conditional response is replaced with a pleasant one.
Cognitive Therapy
Beck
Challenging negative beliefs
Cognitive triad
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Ellis
Rational emotive behavior therapy
Expose and confront the dysfunctional thoughts of clients.
Challenging illogical ways of thinking
assigning behavioral homework
Group Therapy
Somatic Therapy
Eclectic Therapy
Therapist
Psychiatrist
Clinical Psychologist
Counseling Therapist
Psychoanalyst
Social Psychology
Group Dynamics
Norms
Rules about how group members should act.
Social Loafing
The Phenomenon when individuals do not put in as much effort when acting as part of a group as they do when acting alone.
Group Polarization
Tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than the group members would make individually.
Group thinking
The tendency for some groups to make bad decisions. group members suppress their reservations about the ideas supported by the group.
Deindividuation
Loss of self-restraint occurs when group members feel anonymous and aroused.
Zimbardo's prison experiment
Obedience Study
Milgram
Electric shock
Over 60% obeyed
Social Cognition
Attitude Formation
Attribution Theory
Explain how people determine the causes of what they observe.
Dispositional/ Person Attribution
Situation Attribution
Stable Attribution
Unstable Attribution
Kelley
Consistency
Distinctiveness
Consensus (共识)
Determine Person Vs. Situation
Attributional Biases
Fundamental Attribution
Overestimate the importance of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors.
X Collectivist Cultures
Individualistic Culture
False-Consensus Effect
Overestimate the number of people who agree with them.
Self-Serving Bias
Tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones.
Just-World Belief
The bias toward thinking that bad things happen to bad people. Belief in "misfortunes befall people who deserve them". Tendency to blame victims.
Biology
(EEG) Electroencephalogram
Examine types of waves.
(CAT/ CT) Computerized Axial Tomography
Sophisticated X-ray. Structure of brain
(MRI) Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Uses magnetic field to measure the density and location of brain material.
(PET) Position Emission Tomography
Activities and Chemicals of the brain.
(fMRI) Functional MRI
Blood flow, Brain structure, Brain activities
Developmental Psychology
Cognitive Development
Piaget
Sensorimotor Stage
Preoperational Stage
Concrete Operations
Formal Operation
