Scandinavian rock art: About boats and sailing

Danish tumulus: Borum Eshoj

Rock formations on Gotland island

Traditional Viking Ship: The Ship of Heuspen (Hjortsrping Boat, Denmark)

Rome defeated the Alpine Gallic tribes south of the Alps, in Italy

In 58BC, Caesar became the governor of Gaul and had a head-on conflict with Ariovist, the leader of the Suebi, whom he called Germans (for a long time, the Roman Empire equated the Suebi with the Germans) In order to gain the empire's military support, Caesar exaggerated the Germanic threat and began to conquer the Suebi. Until 49BC, Caesar conquered all of Alpine Gaul and pushed Rome's territory north to the Rhine River Starting in 12 BC, the Roman army occupied most of Germania under the campaign of Drusus.

After Drusus's death, his brother Tiberius, later Augustus, took over. He built a Roman-style city in the settlement of the Ubii tribe on the Rhine River and conquered other Germanic tribes by demonstrating Rome's cultural superiority. The Germanic tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe also gradually surrendered, and the city of Ulbi became the center of the Germania province. The city grew into the largest city north of the Roman Alps in the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD The surrendered Germanic tribes not only had to provide soldiers for Rome, but the children of tribal leaders were also sent to Rome for military service and education, effectively becoming hostages. Around 8 BC, Arminius, the son of the leader of the Cherusci tribe, also came to Rome.

The Germans defeated Rome, ending the expansion of the Roman Empire in northern Europe The Vikings remained independent from Roman rule

After Arminia returned to Germania, she saw Rome's oppression of the Germanic tribes, and united the Germanic tribes to secretly overthrow Roman rule in Germany. In 9AD, Arminia introduced Governor Varus and more than 20,000 Roman soldiers into a forest in Kalkriese, Germany today, and annihilated the Roman army. Historically, it was called the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. Six years later, Roman soldiers found the battlefield and buried the Roman soldiers. In 16 AD, the Roman army retreated, and most of the Germanic areas were freed from Roman rule. However, the Germanic peoples did not form a unified country. The old grievances between the tribes were revived. The tribes rejected Arminian integration and rejected his dictatorship. After Arminia was assassinated, Germany returned to its old traditions

In 260 AD, the Roman Emperor Valerian was captured by the Persians, and the foundation of Rome was shaken. Civil wars broke out in the empire, the city wall guards were recalled, and Rome retreated to the rear of the Rhine and Danube rivers. The original Roman estates on the north bank of the Rhine were constantly invaded and occupied by the Germans.

The Huns poured into the Germanic territory, and the Germanic people crossed the Rhine and Danube rivers and began to invade Roman territory.

In 482 AD, Clovis, who was only 16 years old, succeeded to the throne of the Franks. In 496 AD, the Franks and Alemanni were fighting for control of the Rhine, and the battle of Tolbiac broke out. The battle finally ended with the victory of the Franks, which not only determined the control of the Rhine River, Clovis also established prestige among the Germanic tribes, and then gradually controlled the Germanic and Gaul regions. More importantly, this battle was interpreted by Clovis as the bankruptcy of Wotan, the god of war. Clovis became the first Frankish king to convert to Christianity and consolidated his rule through Christianity. In 508 AD, Clovis was recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire and officially crowned The Salic Law, dictated by Frankish legal experts and written by the Romans, was established as an independent Germanic written law. At the folk level, the captive Romans brought Christianity into the Germanic world, which was very popular especially among women, but it still did not completely replace the traditional polytheistic worship. The Germanic people decorated crosses with pagan sun wheels, which also illustrates the union of the two. But then Clovis began to promote Christianity in the French Empire and eliminate traditional pagan beliefs. The nobles of the Anglo-Saxon tribes on the other side of the European continent did not convert to Christianity until the 7th century.

There are beginning to be signs of dynastic rule: Gamla Uppsala tomb complex in Sweden *550-700AD)

Religion: Living Sacrifice

The earliest trace of the Swedish Vikings in St. Petersburg: the longest lasting evidence of the Vikings leaving their homeland. And thus established trade routes leading to Constantinople and even Asia.

From St. Petersburg all the way east to Istanbul, the Vikings were later called Rus (rowers) by locals and Easterners.

Trade with the East also affected the life of the Vikings in their hometown: Birka, Sweden, a Scandinavian city that prospered due to trade

The First Viking Invasion of Great Britain: Lindisfarne Abbey Sacked

The Vikings established Dublin in Ireland at the western end of the trade route: slaves accounted for an important part of the trade between the Vikings and the East. Dublin became the largest slave market in Europe, and the sources of slaves were Irish, Anglo-Saxons, Pitts, etc.

Vikings from Denmark invaded England and captured Repton in 873

In 878, the Viking attack was blocked by Alfred the Great of Wessex, and the two parties signed the Treaty of Widmore. The Vikings took control of the northern part of England, called Danelaw. English language and culture were deeply influenced by the Vikings who came to northern England

The Norwegian Vikings discovered Iceland. The early inhabitants lived along the coast, and later settlers opened up farms in the inland areas. It was not until 903 that 36 major families established the Althingi Council, which began to formulate regulations and implement the earliest democratic governance.

Denmark was ruled by the new Jelling dynasty and was the beginning of a unified nation-state for the Vikings.

The Jelling Dynasty implemented centralized governance. Harald Bluetooth also changed Denmark by leading Denmark to convert to Christianity: It has been found that as early as 850 AD, the Vikings had Christian-style tombs. However, during this period, the new religion did not completely replace the old tradition, and the two coexisted. In 970AD, in order to prevent the invasion of other Christian countries in Europe and consolidate their rule, King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark implemented a religious revolution and officially positioned Christianity as the state religion of Denmark. Over the next hundred years, other Viking rulers converted to Christianity, paganism was eradicated, and the Saga era came to an end.

As Scandinavia began to integrate into European society and implement royal rule, they needed a more stable income. The Danes began their entanglement with England: In 980AD, the Danes once again attacked England, which had an advanced currency and tax system, and seized England's wealth by coercing tribute. In 1002 AD, in order to retaliate against the endless demands of the Vikings, King Ehtelred of England ordered the execution of all Danes in the territory: Saint Brice's Day Massacre In 1013, Denmark invaded England on a large scale. In 1015, Harald's grandson Canute occupied England and became the monarch of Denmark and England. Later, he also conquered Scotland, Norway and parts of Sweden and became the monarch of the Viking Empire, becoming Canute the Great. After Canute's death in 1035, his empire was inherited by his four sons. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden formed the new kingdom.

Navigating adventurers such as Eric the Red continued to sail into the North Atlantic, and traces of Vikings were discovered in Greenland, Newfoundland, and even on the east coast of America.