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MindMap Gallery ecology
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ecology
Mainly includes ecosystem ecology, applied ecology, modern ecology, formulas, organisms and environment, population ecology, and community ecology.
Edited at 2024-09-05 09:46:40
- Amazon Reverse Work Method
これは、「Amazon Reverse Working Method」「Amazon Reverse Working Method」に関するマインドマップです。それは、Amazonの成功の秘密を明らかにし、実用的な作業方法と管理の原則を提供し、Amazon文化を理解し、仕事の効率と創造性を向上させたい読者にとって大きな参照価値です。
- Azure Blobストレージは大規模なOpenaiトレーニングをどのようにサポートしていますか？
Azure BlobストレージにおけるMicrosoftの顕著な進歩とイノベーション、特にChatGptの作成者であるOpenaiの巨大なコンピューティングニーズを効果的にサポートする方法に焦点を当てています。 Azure Blobストレージ製品管理チームのJason Valerieは、JakeとDeverajaと協力して、Azure BlobストレージがOpenaiの大規模なモデルトレーニング、処理データ、ストレージをexebbitレベルまでに行う上で重要な役割を果たしました。議論には、AIワークロードのスケーリングスーパーコンピューターが直面している課題と、地域ネットワークゲートウェイを接続するデータセンターなどのアーキテクチャソリューション、および動的ストレージ容量の拡張を可能にする拡張アカウントの導入が含まれます。技術的な側面は、チェックポイントのメカニズム、大規模なデータ処理、革新的なブロブビューと階層的な名前空間、グローバルデータモビリティ機能をカバーし、Microsoftのグローバルネットワークインフラストラクチャを戦略的に利用して効率的なデータ送信を可能にします。この会話は、高度なAIの研究開発に強力でスケーラブルで効率的なストレージソリューションを提供するというマイクロソフトのコミットメントを完全に示しています。
- 熱い
これは、主にオブジェクト状態の変化、熱エンジン、内部エネルギー、熱比熱容量、温度スケールを含む、熱に関するマインドマップです。紹介は詳細であり、説明は包括的です。
ecology
- Amazon Reverse Work Method
これは、「Amazon Reverse Working Method」「Amazon Reverse Working Method」に関するマインドマップです。それは、Amazonの成功の秘密を明らかにし、実用的な作業方法と管理の原則を提供し、Amazon文化を理解し、仕事の効率と創造性を向上させたい読者にとって大きな参照価値です。
- Azure Blobストレージは大規模なOpenaiトレーニングをどのようにサポートしていますか？
Azure BlobストレージにおけるMicrosoftの顕著な進歩とイノベーション、特にChatGptの作成者であるOpenaiの巨大なコンピューティングニーズを効果的にサポートする方法に焦点を当てています。 Azure Blobストレージ製品管理チームのJason Valerieは、JakeとDeverajaと協力して、Azure BlobストレージがOpenaiの大規模なモデルトレーニング、処理データ、ストレージをexebbitレベルまでに行う上で重要な役割を果たしました。議論には、AIワークロードのスケーリングスーパーコンピューターが直面している課題と、地域ネットワークゲートウェイを接続するデータセンターなどのアーキテクチャソリューション、および動的ストレージ容量の拡張を可能にする拡張アカウントの導入が含まれます。技術的な側面は、チェックポイントのメカニズム、大規模なデータ処理、革新的なブロブビューと階層的な名前空間、グローバルデータモビリティ機能をカバーし、Microsoftのグローバルネットワークインフラストラクチャを戦略的に利用して効率的なデータ送信を可能にします。この会話は、高度なAIの研究開発に強力でスケーラブルで効率的なストレージソリューションを提供するというマイクロソフトのコミットメントを完全に示しています。
- 熱い
これは、主にオブジェクト状態の変化、熱エンジン、内部エネルギー、熱比熱容量、温度スケールを含む、熱に関するマインドマップです。紹介は詳細であり、説明は包括的です。
- Recommended to you
- Outline
ecology
Organisms and Environment
The effect of environment on living things
biological reactions to the environment
tolerance limit
Liebig's law of minimum factors
Approximately equal to the barrel law
law of tolerance
Ecological width (ecological price)
Factors affecting tolerance
biological species
developmental stage
Overall changes
When the tolerance of one factor decreases, the tolerance of other factors decreases at the same time.
Domestication
natural domestication
artificial domestication
Homeostasis
Expand ecological breadth and adaptive scope
cannot completely escape environmental constraints
energy environment
Hot means more short wave light, cold means more long wave light
Special case of altitude: the higher the height, the more shortwave light
The higher the latitude, the longer the sunshine
photosynthetically active radiation
The spectrum available for photosynthesis
Spectral range: 380~710nm
Red light is beneficial for the synthesis of sugar, and blue-violet light is beneficial for the synthesis of proteins.
Effects of different light qualities on plants
Blue-violet light and cyan light inhibit plant elongation and growth
Blue-violet light is beneficial to the formation of plant pigments
light intensity
Carotene is produced in the dark
yellowing phenomenon
Adaptable to activities at night or in low light at dawn and dusk
Nocturnal or diurnal
Photoperiod related to animal activity
photoperiod
plant
long day plants
Flowers will bloom only if the sunshine exceeds a certain value
Radish, spinach, wheat, impatiens, burdock
short day plants
Flowers bloom only when the sunshine is less than a certain value
Corn, sorghum, rice, cotton, morning glory
mid-sun plants
Blooms when day and night are nearly equal
Few tropical plants (sugar cane)
day-neutral plants
Flowering independent of daylight hours
Dandelions, green beans, cucumbers, tomatoes, sweet potatoes
animal
reproduce
long day animals
Weasels, minks, hedgehogs, voles, pheasants
spring breeding
short day animals
Sheep, musk deer, deer
Autumn breeding
Giving birth in spring and summer
insect
diapause
Pear heartworm larvae
feather
Molt in temperate zone and cold zone
Beasts change from spring to autumn
Birds change every year
migration
Birds that are not treated with long light do not migrate or migrate in the opposite direction
temperature
soil
There is basically no change in temperature after 40 meters underground
Soil depth ↑, the occurrence time of temperature extreme value is delayed, and the time difference is proportional to the depth
Shallow short-period changes, deep-layer long-period changes
Large annual changes in soil temperature in mid-latitudes
Solar radiation intensity & exposure time vary greatly
Soil temperature at low latitudes is controlled by rainfall
High latitudes and high altitudes are related to snow accumulation
Water body
upper lake level
thermocline
lower lake layer
Circulation (surface layer reaches 4℃ first)
wind blown surface
Surface temperature↓
Upstream and downstream
Circulation appears
Ice melts
Surface temperature↑
Launch into the water
Circulation appears
animal type
Normal temperature & variable temperature
Normal body temperature is basically constant
ectothermic body temperature changes with environment
External temperature & internal temperature
External temperature depends on ambient heat source
Internal temperature relies on oxidative metabolism in the body to generate heat
thermal neutral zone
The environmental temperature range in which animals have the lowest metabolic rate and oxygen consumption does not change with the ambient temperature
Plants & Ectotherms
Temperature Coefficient
Q10=metabolic rate at body temperature at t℃/(t-10) metabolic rate at body temperature at t℃
Q10 is generally about 2
Describe the increase in metabolic rate with temperature
hypothermia injury
Freeze damage
free water crystallization
rupture of plasma membrane
Protein inactivation or denaturation
Cold damage
Low temperature disrupts physiological balance or reduces physiological activity
Resistant to freezing
freeze outside cells
Commonly found in high latitude ocean intertidal zone shellfish
super cold phenomenon
Resistant to freezing solute accumulation and freezing point lowering
Sawfly, Antarctic bony fish
Developmental threshold temperature (biological zero)
Effective accumulated temperature (total accumulated temperature)
Effective accumulated temperature law
K=N（T-C）
K represents the total heat, N represents the number of days used, T represents the ambient temperature, C represents the development threshold temperature, V=1/N
T=C K/N=C KV
Domestication
Domestication (artificial experimental induction)
Climate acclimation (naturally occurring)
vernalization
Pre-low temperature induction of development and flowering
adapt
Plants adapt to low temperatures
Free water ↓, bound water ↑
Intracellular sugar and other solutes↑
Cell membrane unsaturated fatty acids ↑ increase membrane permeability and stability
Antifreeze protein with thermal hysteresis activity and recrystallization inhibitory activity, inhibiting ice crystal formation
arctic and alpine plants
Buds & leaves protected by lipids
Buds have scales, body surface wax powder and dense hairs
The trunk is thick, short and curved, the branches are creeping, and the bark is thick
Endothermic animals adapt to low temperatures
Bergmann's law
Temperature ↓, body shape ↑, relative body surface area ↓, reduce heat dissipation
Allen's law
The limbs, tails, and external ears of endothermic animals in cold areas tend to become shorter and smaller, reducing heat dissipation.
countercurrent heat exchange
Heat transfer: arteries → veins (branch contraction reduces blood flow and heat loss)
Non-shivering thermogenesis (NST)
small mammals
Brown adipose tissue (BAT)
NST occurs on the inner membrane of BAT mitochondria and has a unique uncoupling protein subchannel
When the channel is opened, the transmembrane proton gradient generated by the respiratory chain is used. The protons pass through the channel and release energy.
Controlled by sympathetic and thyroid hormones
cold adaptation
The thermal neutral zone is wide, the lower critical point is low, and the value below the lower critical point increases slowly as the temperature decreases, and the slope of the straight line is low, indicating good cold adaptability.
Plants adapt to high temperatures
Avoid large areas exposed to sunlight
thicken
physiological
Reduce cell water content, sugar or salt concentration ↑
Metabolic rate↓
Protoplasm condensation ability↑
Transpiration avoids overheating
heat shock protein
Participate in the folding of new peptides, help recover proteins damaged by high temperature, transport completely damaged proteins to specific locations and remove them
Animals adapt to high temperatures
thermal window
Naked, thin-skinned, hairless, rich in blood vessels
Example: rabbit ears
ungulates
carotid arteriolar network
Countercurrent heat exchange to prevent brain overheating
Heat shock protein (HSP)
Mammalian HSP73 (structural HSP70) & HSP72 (inducible HSP70), the latter is low expressed in normal cells
wind
plant
"Flag Tree"
The leeward side grows well, the windward buds die
Found in areas where one-way winds prevail
The stronger the wind, the shorter the trees become and tend to be cone-shaped.
spread
wind-pollinated flowers
The flowers are not bright in color and large in quantity.
Flying animals are basically not distributed in windy areas
protective adaptation
Some invertebrates (insects) migrate using the wind
windbreak
Tight forest belt (worst)
clear forest belt
Ventilated forest belt (best windproof effect)
Wind speed ↑, wind protection effect ↑
fire
crown fire
Destructive
ground fire
Less destructive, mainly damaging seedlings
Pros: organic → inorganic
Disadvantages: Decreased number of species & poverty of species, reduced soil water retention capacity, loss of fertilizers
physical environment
water
Field water capacity
Water accumulated in soil pores against gravity
Water storage capacity upper limit
terrestrial plants
hygrophytes
Begonias, rice, rushes
mesophytes
The leaves have cuticles, the fence tissue is relatively neat, and the ability to prevent transpiration is greater than that of hygrophytes.
xerophytes
Less serous plants
Survival after losing 50% of water, small leaves, large amount of hydrophilic colloid substances, high osmotic water absorption
polyspermic plant
A large amount of five-carbon sugars, hypertonic water absorption, rhizome and leaf parenchyma tissue → water storage tissue (fleshy sex organs)
The stomata are closed during the day and open at night. Organic acids fix carbon and decompose into CO2 during the day to provide raw materials for photosynthesis.
aquatic plants
High concentration of Pro, sorbitol, Gly-Betanin, high osmotic water absorption
salt glands
Abscisic acid activates genes that produce protein penetration and resists salt stress
plant productivity
Photosynthetic efficiency: C4>C3
Drought a key factor in low productivity
water and animals
fish osmoregulation
Hypertonic freshwater teleost
Passing large amounts of hypotonic urine
Developed glomeruli, high filtration rate, no bladder or small bladder
Gills absorb salt and consume energy→ATP hydrolyzes for energy
Blood-0.7℃&fresh water-0.02℃
Marine fish hypotonicity
Blood-0.80℃&Seawater-1.85℃
Little urination, hypotonic urine
Marine cartilaginous fish are basically isotonic
Blood storage urea & trimethylamine oxide
Trimethylamine oxide has a counteracting effect on enzyme inhibition by urea
The offset effect is strongest when urea:trimethylamine oxide=2:1
euryhaline migratory fish
The amount of urine is greater in fresh water and less in sea water.
Hormones that regulate osmotic pressure: cortisol, growth hormone, prolactin
density adaptation
swim bladder
The upper layer is more inflated
Less sinking gas
deep sea fish
The skin tissue is highly permeable, the bones & muscles are underdeveloped, and there is no swim bladder
Lung-breathing animals (whales, seals)
The ribs have no sternum attachment, some have no ribs, and the diaphragm without a central tendon is placed obliquely in the chest cavity.
When diving into the deep sea, the water pressure presses out all the gas in the alveoli without dissolved nitrogen, thus avoiding latent diseases caused by nitrogen boiling.
Adaptation to hypoxia
Plant respiration consumes oxygen at night, which can easily lead to mass death of fish schools.
Improved hypoxia tolerance
Possibility 1: Increase the volume of water flowing through the gills
Increased blood oxygen capacity in hypoxic environment
ATP↓, deoxyHb oxygen affinity↑
ATP↓, pH↑, blood oxygen binding capacity↑
Deoxygenated Hb↑, pH↑, HbO2 affinity↑ (Bohr effect)
Hypoxic stimulation, hyperventilation, CO2 discharge↑, pH↑
anaerobic metabolism
Gills diffuse lactic acid & ethanol to avoid acidosis
Amphibians
freshwater
Skin absorbs salt and kidneys excrete dilute urine
The skin of the bladder reabsorbs water to retain body fluids
Saltwater amphibians (crab-eating frogs)
High concentration urea retention, hypertonicity, osmotic pressure water absorption
land animals
water balance
Reduce water loss
Reduce respiratory water loss (countercurrent exchange)
When inhaling, water vapor becomes saturated water vapor at core temperature
When exhaling, the gas cools and retains water
Reduce evaporation water loss
Skin prevents evaporation over large areas
Reduce excretory water loss
Concentrate urine through water absorption through Henry's loops and collecting ducts
Henry loop length ↑, water recovery ↑, urine concentration ↑
Excretion of protein metabolites
Fish mainly excrete ammonia, while cartilaginous fish mainly excrete urea
Amphibians, lactation excretes urea
Reptiles, birds, insects excrete uric acid
adaptive performance
Day and night
aestivation
diapause
humidity
Likes moisture
Relative humidity ↑, development rate ↑, fertility ↑, life span ↑, mortality rate ↓
Hidden
Locusts that like dryness have a maximum development speed, maximum egg-laying capacity, and min lifespan under a relative humidity of 70%.
When the humidity is between 40% and 80%, the life span of locusts is extended compared to 70%, and when the humidity is below 40% and above 80%, the life span is reduced.
Life expectancy is “M” shaped, mortality rate is “U” shaped
Animals & Snow Quilts
snow quilt
Stable snow cover formed by winter snowfall in high latitudes
soil temperature
Thick snow cover, soil temperature ↑, small rodents & overwintering plants ↑, birds & ungulates ↓
oxygen
Oxygen and bioenergetic metabolism
Generally speaking, O2 concentration ↓, animal metabolic rate ↓
Adaptation to high altitude hypoxia
partial pressure of oxygen
Air pressure caused by O2
blood oxygen affinity index
The partial pressure of oxygen when the blood oxygen saturation is 50%
p50↑, affinity ↓, the curve shifts to the right
p50↓, affinity ↑, curve left
DPG
2,3-bisphosphoglycerate
Causes p50 to increase, affinity ↓, and the curve shifts to the right
Altitude↑, DPG↑, p50↑
Hypoxic stimulation, hyperventilation, O2↑, CO2↓, blood alkalinity, hypocapnia
Returning from high altitude to the plains
Blood viscosity ↑, heart load ↑, cardiac hypertrophy occurs
soil
plant
saline-alkali soil plants
Short, dry and hard, with undeveloped leaves and thick epidermis, often with gray-white hairs.
Classification
halophytes
The protoplasm has strong salt resistance and the cells are extremely hypertonic.
Examples: Salthorn grass, sea lotus seed
halophytes
Stem and leaf salt glands secrete salt
Mangrove plants, tamarisk, red sand (Pipa Chai)
halo-impermeable plants
Hypertonic, large amounts of soluble organic matter
Artemisia, saltland aster, saltland chamomile, alkaline chamomile
psomaphytes
Adventitious buds & adventitious roots
Can sleep
population ecology
constitute
single organism
The origin of each individual is a fertilized egg, and the number of organs, tissues, and parts is basically constant.
mammals, birds, amphibians, insects
building block organism
Body parts are repeatable and grow by accumulating building blocks (e.g. a tree accumulates branches and stems to grow)
Most plants, sponges, polyps, corals
Density & Distribution
statistics
method
Mark and recapture method (Petersen method or Lincoln method)
N：M=n：m→N=Mn/m
Errors and reasons
There is immigration, so it is expected to remain unchanged.
There is emigration, estimated to change randomly or remain unchanged
chirp count
distributed
Evenly distributed
random distribution
distributed in clusters
Most common
Reasons: uneven distribution of resources; plant seeds spread with the mother plant as the center; animal swarming behavior
Indicators for testing intra-distribution type
Variance/Mean
architecture structure
Spatial arrangement of recurring building blocks in plants
Determine the relationship and function between the individual and the environment
Demography
index
population density
Primary population parameters
birth rate
maximum birth rate
actual birth rate
The actual reproductive success rate of each female over a period of time
age-specific birth rate
The number of offspring produced by each female per unit time within a certain age group
Relevant factors
Sexual maturity speed, production volume per time, number of breedings & embryonic stage, hatching period, breeding age
mortality rate
lowest mortality rate
Physiological mortality under optimal conditions
actual mortality rate
age-specific mortality rate
Number of deaths/number of individuals at the beginning of the time period
move in
move out
Secondary population parameters
sex ratio
age structure
age cone
Pyramid - growing type, with many young and few old individuals
Bell-shaped - stable
Pot shape - descending type, smaller at the bottom and larger at the top, more young, younger and older
period structure
The number of individuals in each period
individual size group
Describe the population that builds the organism
population growth rate
life table
agex
Survival number n
The number of survivors at the beginning of a period with age x
Survival rate (age-specific survival rate)l
Proportion of surviving individuals from birth to the beginning of period x
l=n/n0, that is, survival rate = number of survivors in this period/initial number of survivors
Number of deaths d
d=current period n-next period n
Mortality rate q
q=d/n
Life expectancy (average remaining years)e
Average number of years of future survival
Average number of survivors L
(n in this period n in the next period)/2
Total years of survival T
The average life span of the population e0
k=the common logarithm of the number of individuals in this period - the common logarithm of the number of individuals in the next period, that is, lg? ? ? -lg? ? ?
k represents the lethality in a specific period
m(b) birth rate
The average number of offspring produced by each surviving individual in this period
Net value added rate R0
R0=Σ(l×m)
R0>1, population ↑; R0=1, stable; R0<1, population ↓
dynamic life table
contemporaneous group
from birth to death
static life table
Time-specific surveys
K-factor analysis
Continuously observe the life table to determine which key factor has the greatest impact on the total mortality k
survival curve
lgl or lgn is the y-axis, age x is the x-axis
type
丨Type
Convex type: larval survival rate ↑, old-age mortality rate ↑, non-physiological death ↓
Large mammals & humans
丨丨type
Diagonal type: mortality rate is relatively stable
birds
丨丨丨type
Concave type, larval mortality ↑
Spawning fish, shellfish, pine trees
growth rate
natural growth rate r
r=lnR0/T
T represents generation time (from birth to childbirth is one generation time)
T=(Σxlm)/(Σlm)
intrinsic growth rate rm
Maximum instantaneous growth rate under ideal conditions
reproductive value
Reproductive Valence V
V=Σ（l1m/l0）
The survival rate of the last period is l1, and the survival rate of this period is l0, which are accumulated to the last period of reproduction.
The average contribution of females of a certain age to population growth
growth model
Density-independent population growth (infinite growth of the population)
population discrete growth model
N next generation = λ N this generation
Population size N
λ cycle growth rate
λ>1, population ↑
λ=1, stable
λ<1, population ↓
N this generation =N0λt power
Generations do not overlap
Population Continuous Growth Model
(b-d)N=Nr
birth rate b, death rate d
Instantaneous growth rate, positive increase and negative decrease
Overlapping generations
Density dependent
Environmental capacity K
Maximum number of individuals that can be accommodated
logistic equation
dN/dt=rN(1-N/K)
The actual population growth lags and may exceed the maximum value in the image
TR=1/r
Natural reaction time, the time it takes to regain balance after being disturbed
Seasonal ebb and flow
medium peak type
Drought appears in the year, and the damage in the two phases of Lei and Ling is slight.
bimodal
Floods occur in the year, and Lei Ling suffers serious damage in both phases.
Front peak type
Flood first and then drought, severe disasters during the budding period
posterior peak type
Drought first and then flood, severe blooming period
Image fluctuation
Ringing
The fluctuations are getting smaller and smaller
stability limit period
stable fluctuations
Chaos Dynamics
irregular fluctuations
population extinction
Organisms that are large in size, have a low birth rate, slow growth, and mature late are likely to die.
ecological invasion
Man-made introduction of alien species into suitable environment, species expansion & stable expansion
Judgment: Changed the structure and function of the original ecosystem and caused harm
population regulation
Constraints
non-density limiting factor
Density restriction factor (related to population density, which determines the environmental capacity)
exogenous population regulation theory
Non-density-constrained climatology school (Bodenheimer, Israel)
Density-constrained biology school (Nicholson, Smith)
Nutrient Restoration Theory (Pitelka & Schultz)
Amount of food↓→Animals↓→Plants↑→Animals↑
Food substance↓→Animal↓→Plant↑→Animal↑
endogenous autoregulation theory
Behavioral Regulation - Wyune-Edwards Theory (Wyune-Edwards)
community exclusivity, exclusion
Christian theory of endocrine regulation (Christian)
Intraspecific survival pressure ↑, endocrine abnormalities → death, pressure ↓
Chitty theory of racial genetic regulation (Chitty)
Ford first proposed the role of genetics
Heredity determines fitness. The fittest survive when stress is high, and the same is true when stress is low.
metapopulation dynamics
Metapopulation (heterogeneous population or composite population)
Collection of local populations in habitat patches
Spatially isolated, connected through individual diffusion
Local population: a collection of individuals of the same species with a high probability of interaction
Patch: the spatial area occupied by a local population
standard
Discrete patches that can be occupied by local breeding populations
at risk of extinction
Patches must not be so isolated that they prevent re-colonization from occurring
The dynamics of each local population are not completely synchronized
Refers to the process by which the proportion of occupied habitat patches changes over time.
Small local populations have a higher risk of local extinction
Patches with greater isolation are less likely to be invaded
Mutation & Evolution
Gene
Gene pool shared by individuals of the same species
Gene pool - the sum of the genes of all individuals in a population
Locus: The position on a chromosome that an allele occupies
Mutations
Polymorphism
More than one phenotype occurs in a population
gradient group
Environmental selection pressure changes continuously in geographical space, resulting in gradual changes in gene frequency or phenotype
Phenotypic traits or allele frequency gradients
Evolutionary dynamics
natural selection
Variation is the basis
Fitness W=ml
Fertilitym
Survival rate l
W↑, the gene frequency↑
Selection coefficient s
s w=1
w = fitness of the genotype/fitness of the genotype with the highest fitness
Phenotypic natural selection model
stable choice
Individuals with moderate values have a high survival rate, and extreme individuals are gradually eliminated.
directional selection
Extreme individuals on one side are beneficial, and extreme individuals on the opposite side are eliminated
split choice
Individuals at both ends are beneficial, and individuals in the middle are eliminated.
alternative
gamete selection
The selection of genes is reflected in the performance of gametes (dominant pollen & abortive pollen)
Kin selection (affects social structure)
Individual behavior favors the survival or reproduction of relatives (carrying the same genes)
group selection
Choice between small groups
sexual selection
Male/female competition in the animal kingdom
genetic drift
Population size ↑, genetic drift ↓
Indicator: 1/N (reciprocal of population size)
If s is 10 times or more greater than the intensity of genetic drift, the latter will not be considered, and vice versa.
genetic bottleneck
The population dropped sharply due to natural and man-made disasters (over-hunting) during a certain period, accompanied by changes in gene frequency & a decrease in total genetic variation.
founder effect
Genetic variation and the presence of specific genes depends on the small number of individuals who create the population, becoming more divergent from the parent population over time
speciation
gene flow
The movement of genes within a population through hybridization, diffusion, and migration
geographical speciation theory
geographical isolation
independent evolution
Establishment of reproductive isolation mechanism (species maintenance mechanism)
isolation mechanism
Premating (prezygotic) isolation – preventing zygote formation
ecological (habitat) isolation
Survive in different habitats
Season (time) isolation
Mating period/flowering period varies by season
sexual isolation
Weak attraction between opposite sexes of different species
mechanical isolation
Genital/flower physical unresponsiveness
Isolation of different pollinators
Entomophilous flowers attract different types of pollinators
Post-mating (zygotic) isolation – reduces viability & fecundity of hybrids
hybrids do not survive
hybrid sterility
mule
hybrid damaged
Survive, those who survive are not very alive; reproduce, those who multiply are not very prolific.
Speciation mode
allopatric speciation
Geographical isolation, no contact between old and new species
K-strategy, how long it takes to form a new species
r-Small populations at the extreme edge of the distribution area of r-strategic species are separated and reorganized into new species through the founder effect
neighborhood speciation
Distribution areas are adjacent, progressive distribution, new and old species are adjacent
Sympatric speciation
No geographical isolation, differences in selection of food, host, habitat, etc.
Sympatric speciation by polyploidy
adaptive radiation
Originated from the same ancestor, they differentiated into different types during the evolution process and adapted to different lifestyles.
life history strategies
life history
The whole process from birth to death
Ecological measures (life history measures)
The survival strategies that organisms acquire in their struggle for survival
Energy allocation and trade-offs
single reproduction
multiple reproduction
size effect
Body size has a strong positive correlation with lifespan and a strong negative correlation with intrinsic growth rate
reproductive strategies
r-select
Choose high reproduction rate at the expense of viability
Rapid development, small adults, many small offspring, high reproductive energy allocation, short generation cycle
The climate is changeable, not density-controlled, the survival curve is 丨丨丨, the larval mortality rate is high, the population size is unstable, and the interspecific competition is small
K-select
Choose high viability over high reproduction rate
Slow development, large adults, few large offspring, low reproductive energy allocation, long generation cycle
The climate is stable, density is restricted, the survival curve is type 丨&丨丨, the population size is stable and close to K, and interspecific competition is intense.
pros and cons
r
Populations are easy to recover, but competitiveness is weak
K
Strong competitiveness, but difficult to recover
Reproductive Valence & Reproductive Efficiency
reproductive value
Number of offspring currently due to be produced
Number of offspring expected to be produced in the future
The purpose of evolution - to maximize reproductive value
Basis for choosing countermeasures
Bin snail
immovable rock surface fissure
Security ↑, competition ↑, using K-games
Movable boulder surface
Possibility of crushing snails, security ↓, competition ↓, using r-countermeasures
reproductive efficiency
The ratio of offspring mass to input energy↑, reproductive efficiency↑
Habitat classification & plant life history strategies
CSR triangle
Low severity (excellent environment), low interference (good stability)
Competitive Countermeasures (C-Option)
High severity, low interference
Coercion tolerance countermeasures (S-choice)
Low severity, high interference
Weed Countermeasures (R-Select)
High severity, high interference
inanimate
reproductive effort
High reproductive effort (high-CR)
Reproduction begins after physical maturity
Low reproductive effort (low-CR)
Not delaying reproduction
"Hedging your bets" theory
The ratio of adult mortality to larval mortality is relatively stable
Adults are expected to defend their offspring and reproduce multiple times over a long period of time
Larvae have lower mortality than adults
Reproductive energy allocation ↑, single reproduction
Opportunity, balance, and cyclical life history strategies
Opportunity Countermeasures
Low larval survival rate, small number of offspring, early sexual maturity, adaptability to changing and unpredictable environments, maximum colonization ability
Human words: poor quality, small amount, frequent meals (production)
balancing strategy
High larval survival rate, small number of offspring, late sexual maturity, and competitiveness↑
Human words: high quality, small amount, late delivery
cyclical countermeasures
Large individuals, a large number of small eggs, late sexual maturity, seize the favorable opportunity to complete reproduction and achieve success
Human words: high quality, large quantity, low production
Diapause and dormancy
diapause
The eggs of young locusts (a kind of locust) can continue to develop after 90 days at 4°C or below. From autumn to spring, they will survive the harsh winter.
latent phenomenon
Dehydration dormancy in Tardigrades
Hibernating (birds & mammals)
hibernation
Aestivation (commonly seen in desert animals)
migrate
migration
Repeated round trip
Marine zooplankton, bats, birds, frogs, reindeer
Single round trip
fish, butterfly, moth
one way trip
spotted butterfly, nymphal butterfly
diffusion
Non-directional movement away from birth/breeding place
Avoid intraspecific competition or inbreeding
life cycle
abnormal
Morphological changes during individual life history
Reasons for complex countermeasures
The trade-off between species dispersal and individual growth
Different advantages in different periods
Optimization of habitat use
Environmental resources vary in different periods
senescence
mutation accumulation
Natural selection focuses on useful individuals. Mutated genes are selected and discarded in young individuals, while older individuals are less selected. The selection pressure of mutated genes decreases with age.
Multiple effects
Genes are beneficial during the reproductive period but have adverse effects on older individuals
Intraspecific and interspecific relationships
intraspecific relationship
compete
cannibalism
density effect
The law of constant final yield (plants)
Regardless of the initial sowing intensity, within a certain range, when conditions are the same, the final yield of the plant is almost always the same
Y=W×d=Ki
Y: Yield per unit area, W: Average weight per plant, d: Density, Ki: Constant
Under high density conditions, competition↑, growth rate↓, and individuals become smaller
-3/2 self-thinning rule (plants & sessile animals barnacles, mussels)
W=C×d-3/2 power
Double logarithm: lgW=lgC-3/2lgd
W: individual average mass, C: constant, d: density
Inescapable competition causes older individuals of the same age group to survive, a process called self-estrangement
Yoda's-3/2 self-thinning rule
gender ecology
Parental investment: energy and material resources expended in producing and raising offspring
Advantages of asexual reproduction
Proliferate rapidly and occupy temporary new habitats
Have the same genome as the mother
Adaptability to sexual reproduction
The genomes of the parents are recombined, and the gametes are genetically variable, and the offspring are genetically variable, which maintains a high level of beneficial population genetic variation, allowing for survivors in adverse environments.
Aphids
Parthenogenesis occurs in spring and summer, males are born in autumn, and overwintering eggs are produced.
sex ratio
1:1
Fisher's sex ratio theory
The fitness of the smaller of the two sexes increases and the number rebounds, and vice versa, the maternal fitness of the offspring that tends to produce the smaller one also increases.
Rare and advantageous
If the two sexes spend less on maternal requirements, the one who spends less will produce more.
The allocation of resources (including the number of individuals) at birth is biased towards a certain sex, which does not mean that sex will necessarily receive more resources. It can reduce the chance of investing resources through methods such as mortality ↑
The local resource shortage between a certain sex causes the other sex to produce more and leave the home area.
Local mating competition between a certain sex, the sex ratio will be biased towards that sex
sexual selection
Those who invest heavily in offspring are picky (pursued), those who invest little are aggressive (competitive)
intrasexual selection
Same-sex mate competition
sexual selection
The selection of a certain characteristic of the opposite sex (which can express genetic superiority)
Handicap theory: luxury traits require good genetic performance and support
Fisher's elopement model: The male's attractive traits are subject to selective sexual selection by the female, and the male itself also produces corresponding coding genes due to the female's selection.
marriage system
Single formulation
Most birds, foxes, weasels, beavers
The distribution is relatively even, and males participate in the upbringing of offspring.
polygyny
When resources are unevenly distributed
polyandry
Rare, effective in harsh environments
Domain and social class
Domain behavior: various behaviors to defend the domain
law
Occupant weight ↑, domain area ↑
Food quality ↑, field area ↑
Territory size and behavior generally vary with life history, especially reproductive rhythms
social level
Basics: Dominance Behavior/Domination-Subordination Relationship
Stabilize the population through social hierarchy, improve efficiency, give priority to strong individuals, and facilitate the inheritance of excellent genes
General fitness: kinship mutual assistance
Allopathogenic effects
Chemical substances secreted and metabolized by individuals have direct/indirect effects on other individuals.
Early rice in agriculture is not suitable for continuous cropping
causing the selectivity of the population components to the community
It is an important internal factor causing the succession of plant communities.
cluster life
Conducive to division of labor and cooperation, feeding, defense, raising young, changing microclimate conditions, and migration
Aristocratic law: a population has its optimal density
interspecific relationships
Large and small paramecium
Differentiation of food habits and habitats
diatoms
Those with high environmental requirements have weak relative competitiveness and are easily excluded.
Darwin's finches (ground finches)
Shifts in ecological niches lead to coexistence (here, selective shifts in food resources)
Barnacles & Small Barnacles
The combination of competition and environmental tolerance affects distribution
Barnacles on the bottom (midtidal zone), small barnacles on the top (supratidal zone)
Gaussian hypothesis
Developed into the "Principle of Competitive Exclusion"
In a stable environment, species that are limited in the same resource and utilize it in the same way cannot coexist for a long time, that is, complete competitors cannot coexist.
Competition Types & Characteristics
Exploitative competition: competition that consumes limited resources and has no direct effect
Disruptive competition: direct interaction between competing individuals
Asymmetry in competition results: one party’s competitive costs are often much higher than those of the other party
Competition for one resource can affect the outcome of competition for another resource
plausibility competition
Two prey species compete by affecting a common predator in order to escape the risk of predation
Lotka-Volterra model
Availability
dN1/dt=r1N1（1-N1/K1-αN2/K1）
When K1>K2/β, K2>K1/α, an unstable equilibrium point appears.
When K1＜K2/β, K2＜K1/α, a stable equilibrium point appears
ecological niche
The status and role of species in communities/ecosystems
Spatial niche (initial) - J.Grinnell
Nutritional Niche——C.Elton
n-dimensional niche - G.E. Hutchinson
n-dimensional hypervolume niche (n is the number of axes)
basic ecological niche
The maximum space a species can theoretically inhabit
actual ecological niche
ecological niche actually occupied by a species
Affected by interspecific competition (shrinking) & mutualism (expanding)
niche differentiation
resource utilization curve
The distribution of organisms along a certain niche dimension (normal distribution)
The amount of niche overlap indicates the strength of competition
Intraspecific competition drives the ecological niches of two species closer, while interspecific competition drives them apart.
extreme similarity
The critical threshold for resource utilization differentiation between competing species, the minimum standard for coexistence
d/w=1 is the approximate limit similarity
d: the distance between the preferred positions (peaks) of the two species on the resource spectrum, w: the variation (standard deviation) of each species around the preferred positions
competition unleashed
Lack of competition, pressure ↓, niche expansion
Trait replacement
Niche contraction caused by competition leads to changes in morphological traits (niche conversion also causes behavioral & physiological changes)
spatial and temporal heterogeneity
"Plankton Paradox"
Ecological factors in a habitat with a simple superstructure have strong spatial & temporal heterogeneity and exclude any interspecific balance.
gap
Disturbed habitats caused by extreme weather or species death
priority
The species that enters the site first has a competitive advantage
Predation
"Typical Prey"
herbivorous
parasitic
predator
Specialized species
Monophores & Oligovores of Herbivores
parasite
generalized species
herbivorous herbivore
Specialized foods are highly selective and generalized weakly
Co-evolution (Red Queen Effect)
Lotka-Volterra model
predator-prey model
Prey equation: dN/dt=r1N-εPN
ε: prey constant (average number of prey individuals per predator)
Predator equation: dP/dt=-r2P θPN
-r2: Death rate, θ: Predation constant (the efficiency of using prey to transform into new individuals)
The image is an oval rotated counterclockwise
The predator curve always lags slightly behind the prey
practical impact
Small
One predator's impact is only part of
Predators consume individuals that are useless to the prey population and consume resources.
foraging behavior
Seeker
Spend a lot of time searching for prey and a short time handling & eating it
Processor
They tend to specialize in diets, spend more time handling and eating, choose high-reward prey, and tend to become obligate hunters
Under equivalent conditions, predator diets in low-productivity habitats are wider
Low-profit foods will be rejected by predators, regardless of abundance
Herbivory
Plants develop various compensatory mechanisms
Leaves fall after damage to branches and leaves↓, photosynthetic rate↑
defense response
Toxicity and bad taste
defense structure
Plant-herbivore system (grazing system)
Appropriate grazing stimulates plant growth
Image similar to L-V model
Parasitism
microparasite
Reproduction in or on the host
Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, aphids (plants)
big parasite
grow but do not reproduce
Animals: false body cavity; plants: insects, plants, fungi (parts)
Parasitoid (parasitoid)
Insect macroparasites (parasitic wasps, flies)
carnivore
Survive on the host after the death of the host
coevolution
The primary host reproduces sexually, the rest reproduce asexually
cellular immune response
specific protein anchoring
localized cell death (plants)
No food
Evolutionary trend: “Side effects → Mutual benefit and symbiosis”
social parasite
Nest parasitism (nest parasitism)
intraspecific
Production volume of parasitized females↓
interspecific
cuckoo
Ants & Parasitic Wasps
symbiosis
Symbiosis
One is harmless, the other is beneficial, mostly found in plants
Mutualism
Mycorrhizae
Clean fish, clean shrimp
Speciality
Indispensable
Facultative
Help each other when needed, be strangers when not needed
pollination
defensive mutualism
Provides one of the parties with defense against competitors/predators
Phytoalkaloids
Ant-Plant Mutualism
Extrafloral nectaries provide food source and ants provide protection
Tissue/intracellular mutualism
Termites-hairworms
community ecology
concept
A collection of populations of various species that gather in the same area at the same time
type
Plant Communities (Geobotany/Vegetation Ecology)
feature
composed of certain types
animals, plants, microorganisms
interconnections between species
Has its own internal environment
a certain structure
Spatial stratification, nutritional structure, and seasonal changes
Have certain dynamic characteristics
a certain distribution range
have boundaries
Areas of continuous slow change have transition zones
Community ecotone: the transition zone between different communities, with obvious edge effects
school
Organism - Clements
A community is an organism
closed community
Individualism - H.A. Gleason
A community is a combination
studio community
community composition
Dominant species
It has a great impact on the community, and it has to be
Establishing species: Dominant species in the dominant layer
Single founder species: "Single founder colony"/"Single dominant colony"
There are two or more founding species: "Co-building community"/"Co-excellent community"
Subdominant species
It works, but not much
companion species
Common, there are companions of the dominant species, not very useful
Occasional/rare species
Residual species accidentally introduced/invaded or declining
Quantitative characteristics
index
Duodu
How many individuals
Soc. very many
Cop.Many
The bigger the superscript number, the more, the third level
Sp. less
Sol. Very few
Un.Basically none
density
Relative density
Percentage of individuals in the sample plot
density ratio
The density of a species as a percentage of the density of the highest density population in the community
Coverage
The shaded area as a percentage of the total area
Base coverage (true coverage)
Coverage area of plant base
Also known as saliency in arbors
coverage ratio
The percentage of the coverage of a species to the sum of the coverage of all species
Sub-coverage (species) > Layer coverage > Total coverage
The overlap of branches and leaves causes the latter two to decrease in statistics
Frequency
The number of quadrats in which a species occurs as a percentage of the total number of quadrats
Law of Frequency (Raunkiaer)
A＞E＞B＞C＞D
The alphabetical order represents the frequency, and E represents the largest number, that is, the dominant species (establishing species)
E↑, the community is uniform; B, C, D↑, the population succession
important value
Comprehensive indicators representing status and role
Important value (I.V.) = relative density, relative frequency, relative base coverage
Diversity
richness
How many
Evenness
distributed
formula
Simpson Diversity Index
D (Simpson's index) = 1 - The probability of obtaining two individuals of the same species through random sampling = 1 - Σ (Ni/N)²
Ni: number of individuals of a single species, N: total number of individuals in the community
You take one from each species
Shannon-Wiener Index
H=-ΣPilog2(Pi)
The summation method is the same as above, Pi is the percentage of individuals of species i to the total number of individuals
Uniformity E=H/Hmax
Hmax=log2(S)
Unevenness R=(Hmax-H)/(Hmax-Hmin)
Hmin=0
Classification
alpha-diversity
regular version
beta-diversity
between two groups
γ-Diversity
a series of communities
Change rules
latitude
Latitude ↑, diversity ↓
altitude
Altitude ↑, Diversity ↓
water depth
Water depth↑, diversity↓
theory
evolutionary time theory
Geological time ↑, evolutionary time ↑, diversity ↑
ecological time theory
Species expansion takes time & pathways
spatial heterogeneity theory
Environmental complexity↑, diversity↑
climate stability theory
Stability gradually decreases from the tropics to the cold zone
doctrine of competition
The environment is mild, and niche differentiation depends on competition between species, overlap ↑, refinement ↑, diversity ↑
Predation theory
Predators contribute to the increase in species diversity to a certain extent
productivity theory
Reality does not support
interspecific association
correlation coefficient
V=(ad-bc)/√(a b)(c d)(a c)(b d)
a: The number of quadrats with both types, b, c: The number of quadrats with only one of them, d: The number of quadrats with neither type
structure
lifestyle
The external manifestation of organisms’ adaptation to the external environment
lifestyle spectrum
Statistics and comparison of lifestyles in specific areas
Classification of higher plant life forms
high bud plant
Buds 25cm above the ground, trees, shrubs, tropical herbs
aboveground budding plant
bud close to ground
ground bud plant
In unfavorable seasons, the aboveground part dies and the buds are at the ground level.
Underground bud plants (cryptophytes)
Buds that survive harsh conditions are buried below the soil surface or in water
annual
Can only grow in good seasons, seeds in bad seasons
ply
vertical structure
The above-ground layered structure of trees: forest phase
Herbs: underground layering
Populations and populations, environmental competition, the results of selection
Animal stratification depends on food habits & microclimate
horizontal structure
mosaicism
Individuals are unevenly distributed in the horizontal direction → small community
time structure
time stratification
seasonal changes
ecotone
edge effect
Trends in the number & density of species in the community ecotone
Biodiversity↑
Weak anti-interference ability and rapid changes
Influencing factors
compete
Same resource species group
Groups of species in a community that utilize common resources in the same way are considered equivalent species
key species
an integral part of the community
prey
Predators feed on dominant species, diversity↑; predators feed on inferior species, diversity↓
Top predators are keystone species in communities
interference
a meaningful ecological phenomenon
Disturbance and community disconnection
lottery competition
There are many species in the community with equal ability to invade faults and equal tolerance to faults.
Any species that at one stage can prevent subsequent invasion by other species
Whoever comes first "wins the lottery" and takes over the fault
High diversity depends on lottery-like competition on fault lines
Fault & minor succession
Diversity is low in the early stage of succession, increases in the middle stage (the environment is changed by species), and decreases in the top stage, with more than one founding species
Fault formation frequency
moderate interference hypothesis
Short and frequent disturbances prevent species from developing well and diversifying↓
Interferences with too long intervals cause species to develop into established species, reducing the survival probability and diversity of other species↓
Moderate disturbance levels allow more species to invade & colonize, diversity↑
Disturbance & Ecological Management
spatial heterogeneity
Plant spatial heterogeneity
High heterogeneity correlates with bird diversity
islands
Species number-area relationship
lgS=lgC Z（lgA）
S: number of species, A: area, Z: constant, slope of regression, C: constant, number of species per unit area
MacAuthur's Balance Says
When extinction and immigration are equal, the number of species is balanced
If the island is large, the immigration rate is ↑; if the island is small, the immigration rate is ↓; the death rate is the opposite.
Close to the mainland, the number of species is ↑; far away, the number of species is ↓
The intersection of the two curves is the predicted number of species.
In terms of species, immigration rate↓
species ↑, mortality ↑
Distance ↑, number of species at equilibrium point ↓
A simple model of species richness
The average niche width and average niche overlap of the population are certain, then the resource range is ↑ and the number of species is ↑
The resource range and the average ecological niche width of the population are constant, the ecological niches overlap ↑, and the number of species ↑
The resource range and ecological niche overlap are certain, the average ecological niche width of the population is ↑, and the number of species is ↓
The three are certain, resource utilization saturation ↑, number of species ↑
Balance theory & non-equilibrium theory
balance theory
The overall situation is stable, and changes are caused by the environment.
dynamic equilibrium
non-equilibrium theory
Overall instability, species can only resist disturbance and self-recovery
moderate interference hypothesis
The L.V model has sufficient time to establish in a stable and uniform environment.
Interference↑, competitive exclusion↓
community dynamics
internal dynamics
Fluctuation: changes within a community
No obvious fluctuations
Change, not very change
oscillation
Secret skill·jumping left and right
sideways fluctuations
Long-term deviation, recoverable (incomplete)
Stability: woody > herbaceous; evergreen > summer green
Severity ↑, fluctuation ↑
succession
definition
Low-level → high-level; simple → complex; stage 1 → stage 2; community 1 → community 2
bare ground
native bare land
There is no hair/all gone (including soil)
secondary bare ground
The soil from the previous generation remains, and some of the soil has "gifts"
The succession that occurs here—secondary succession
type
Chronotype
Rapid succession (a few years)
Long-term succession (tens/hundreds of years)
Century succession (calculated in geological time)
factor type
community succession
Pioneer species invaded and were later replaced
Endogenous ecological succession/endogenous dynamic succession
Plants change their environment, the environment stresses plants, and they change generations
External ecological succession/external dynamic succession
Natural and man-made disasters
matrix type
aquatic
Clay matrix succession series
Sandy succession series
Stone succession series
Aquatic succession series
xerophytic
Clay matrix succession series
Sandy succession series
Stone succession series
metabotype
autotrophic
Heterotrophic
Liu Shen'er type
time succession
spatial succession
Vegetation type succession occurs
Succession series
aquatic
free floating plant stage
Submerged aquatic plant stage
floating leaf rhizophyte stage
upright aquatic stage
hygrophytic herb stage
woody plant stage
xerophytic
Lichen plant community stage
Bryophyte community stage
Herbaceous plant community stage
shrub community stage
tree community stage
factor
Natural disasters (natural environmental changes) & man-made disasters
Dispersal of plant propagules (propagation & migration)
direct/indirect interactions between plants
New plant taxonomic units are constantly occurring
direction
progress succession
forward
retrograde succession
reduced to simplicity
theoretical model
Facilitation Model – Clements
Those who come first promote those who come later, and species replacement is orderly, predictable, and directional.
Suppression model (original flora theory) - Egler
Continuous interspecific replacement, the first comers crowd out the late comers, and the succession develops from small individuals to large individuals
Tolerance Model – Conell & Slatyer
The most tolerant species replace the others
Adaptation strategy succession theory——Grime
CSR triangle
C: competitive species
S: Stress tolerant species
Resource ratio theory - Tilman
Changes in resource allocation → changes in competitive relationships
Hierarchical Succession Theory - Piclett
Detailed analysis of the nature & reasons of succession
theory of successional climax
Unit Capstone Theory——Clements
The end point of the succession series depends on climate, and the end point is the top climate; retrograde succession under natural conditions is impossible (error)
Pluralism - A.G. Tansley
The end is uncertain
climate top
Soil top
topographic peak
Burning to the extreme
animal climax
Various composite top
Soil-Topography
fire-animals
The top pattern hypothesis——Whittaker
It is essentially a variant of pluralism, also known as the top theory of population pattern.
All top levels change continuously to form the top type
Top advantage: the top community with the widest distribution and often located in the center of the pattern
Classification & Sorting
Classification
plant
Basic unit: Cluster
community
vegetation type
Group＞Basic Unit＞Asia
Vegetation type > Biome > Cluster
name
clusters
Ass. Scientific names of dominant species in each layer (use - to connect between species, from high to low)
One layer has a common connection.
If there is no established group species at the top level, use < to connect
Replace "-" in herbaceous plant communities with " "
school
French-Swiss School
merge method
Basic to advanced by flora
Anglo-American School
Dynamic classification system (dual-track classification system)
Classification from the perspective of succession, top and non-top levels are discussed separately
sort
Establish a P-dimensional coordinate system
Positive analysis (Q analysis)
Sort entities based on attributes (coordinates → entities)
Inverse analysis (R analysis)
Sort attributes from entity (entity→attribute)
method
Direct sorting (direct gradient analysis/gradient analysis)
Ranking using a certain ecological factor
Indirect ranking (indirect gradient analysis/compositional analysis)
Sorting by the attributes of the population itself
Pole sorting method → principal component (principal component) analysis (PCA method)
formula
Effective accumulated temperature law
K=N（T-C）
Mark and recapture method (Petersen method or Lincoln method)
N：M=n：m→N=Mn/m
Logistic equation and its derivatives
Logical truth
dN/dt=rN(1-N/K)
Lotka - Voltra
Availability
dN1/dt=r1N1（1-N1/K1-αN2/K1）
When K1>K2/β, K2>K1/α, an unstable equilibrium point appears.
When K1＜K2/β, K2＜K1/α, a stable equilibrium point appears
predator-prey model
Prey equation: dN/dt=r1N-εPN
ε: prey constant (average number of prey individuals per predator)
Predator equation: dP/dt=-r2P θPN
-r2: Death rate, θ: Predation constant (the efficiency of using prey to transform into new individuals)
The image is an oval rotated counterclockwise
The predator curve always lags slightly behind the prey
Average number = [Σ (frequency × number of individuals in a single quadrat)]/n
Variance = (Σmean²-(Σmean)²/total number of samples)/(total number of samples-1)
modern ecology
molecular ecology
molecular marker technology
isozyme electrophoresis
Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (RFLP)
minisatellite DNA fingerprint
Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
Microsatellite (SSR)
DNA sequence analysis
Molecular mechanism of adversity stress
Resistant to cold
nonshivering thermogenesis
Mitochondrial inner membrane uncoupling protein (UCP1)
Cold shock protein (CSP/cold shock protein)
prokaryotes
cold rest induced protein
Partially functions as RNA chaperone
post-transcriptional regulation
Antifreeze protein AFP
Inhibit icing or induce extracellular icing
cold regulated gene COR
Highly expressed cold stress genes in cold-acclimated plants
Cold resistance of membrane phospholipids
Reduce the carbon-hydrogen chain saturation of membrane phospholipids at low temperatures, saturated fatty acids → unsaturated fatty acids, fluidity ↑
Heat resistant
heat shock protein HSP
highly conservative
The homology of HSP70 between different organelles of the same species is less than that between the same organelles of different species.
HSPs of the same species and different types have low homology
The synthesis reaction is short-lived
Quick effect, short effective time
Cross-tolerance
Thermal stimulation not only produces HSP, but also enhances tolerance in other aspects.
biological functions
HSP increases tolerance to various stimuli
Acts as a molecular chaperone to assist in protein folding
Synergistic immunity (protection against pathogens)
Anti-oxidize effect
Drought resistant
Drought stress-induced gene expression
ABA
transcription factor genes
EnvZ protein
OmpR protein
drought resistance gene
RD
Plant stress resistance
Plant osmotic stress (can be caused by drought, salt, low temperature)
Anti-hypoxia
Genes that promote enhanced oxygen transport capacity & genes that promote glucose supply
Molecular Ecology of Populations
Allelic DiversityA
A=average number of alleles at each locus
The proportion of polymorphic loci in the population P
P=polymorphic loci with variation/total number of loci
Observed heterozygosity H0
The proportion of heterozygotes at a certain locus in the total population
Gene diversity h/average expected heterozygosity
h=1-ΣProbability of each allele²
When the observed sequence is too long, observe the nucleotide diversity
Factors affecting genetic diversity
Genetic drift & effective population size
Effective population: individuals participating in the reproduction of offspring
Ne=4 participating females × participating males/(participating females × participating males)
Changes in reproductive success VRS
Ne=(4N-2)/(VRS 2)
long-term population fluctuations
Total Ne=number of generations/(ΣThe reciprocal of Ne in each generation)
bottleneck effect
Genetic diversity first↓ then↑
natural selection
Stable selection, directional selection, diversity↓
Split choice, diversity↑
landscape ecology
principle
landscape integrity principle
Landscape Heterogeneity Principle
complex and diverse
landscape hierarchy principle
The principle of landscape scale effect
Different perspectives, different conclusions
The relationship between landscape pattern and ecological process
The former determines the latter, and the latter affects the former
Principles of Landscape Dynamics
index
Unit characteristics
plaque
Heterogeneity
Diversity
Mosaic (contrast)
distance
Connectedness (contact, exchange of energy information)
fragmentation index
Landscape pattern analysis model
landscape model
Null hypothesis model
Landscape space dynamic model
Landscape individual behavior model
landscape process model
applied ecology
definition
Apply ecological theories and principles to solve social problems
global warming
El Niño
Warming waters at the equator in the eastern Pacific
Abnormal wind strength and direction, precipitation ↑, typhoons & floods
La Niña
The water at the equator in the eastern Pacific Ocean gets colder
Significant temperature drop and rainfall↓
ozone hole
chlorine
UV rays
air pollution
Smoke & photochemical smog
Photochemical smog: product of burning gasoline
PM2.5
acid rain
water pollution
biochemical oxygen demand
Oxygen demand of microorganisms to oxidize organic matter
Cod
PCBs
It is highly toxic and is called an "environmental hormone" that affects biological endocrine.
biological decontamination
Using microorganisms to remove contaminants
non-renewable natural resources
Basically no renewal ability, generally fossil fuels and non-metallic minerals
agroecology
extinct
background extinction
Survival of the fittest
mass extinction
natural disaster
man-made extinction
Man-made disaster
ecosystem services
product
social role
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
Scenario analysis
"Global Concert" Global & Reactionary
Regardless of ecology, global development
"Strong and orderly" regionalized & reactionary
Regardless of ecology, local development
"Adaptation Mosaic" Regionalized & Progressive
Pay attention to ecology and local development
"Technology Garden" Global & Progressive
Pay attention to ecology, global development
harvest theory
Maximum continuous output MSY
calculate
Use the logistic equation
Theoretically, when the population size is K/2, MSYmax
MSY=rK/4
Quota Limits & Effort Limits
Control the number of individuals harvested and estimate income
Effort limit: Increase harvesting effort to ensure that the population does not become extinct, population size ↑, harvest amount ↑
Maximum economic yield MEY: the amount of harvest obtained under optimal economic efforts
Harvest hard work
Harvester efficiency & quantity
Environmental fluctuations & population structure
Peruvian Anchovy
El Niño affects anchovy production
Dynamic library model
Improve model performance by considering birth rates, growth rates, and death rates for different age groups
pest control
Aesthetic damage level
Impact on society & environment
Economic Injury Level EIL
When the population size is higher than the EIL, it is called a pest
Use pesticides
Kill major pests
Competition↓
Secondary pests and diseases
Harmful species↓
Natural enemies die due to enrichment
Prey ↓
Harmful species↑
ecosystem ecology
General characteristics
definition
Creatures & environment in a certain space
food chain
predator food chain
Start by eating alive
detritus food chain
Start by decomposing corpses and feces
cone
energy cone
Cone of quantity (number of individuals)
Biomass cone (mass/area)
eco-efficiency
Delivery efficiency
Assimilation efficiency
A=Amount of assimilation (storage/acquisition)/Amount of intake (photosynthesis/predation)
Productivity
P=(Amount of assimilation - Respiration volume)/Amount of assimilation
consumption efficiency
C=Intake/Production of the ingested person
Lindemann efficiency
L=A×P×C
Feedback regulation & ecological balance
open system
All systems in nature are open (the space capsule is closed)
cybernetic system
Ecosystem with feedback function
Development requires positive feedback
Stability requires negative feedback
ecological balance
Dynamic
with certain limits
energy flow
primary production
basic concept
primary production/primary production
photosynthetic products
net primary production
photosynthesis-respiration
total primary production
photosynthetic yield
Production volume & biomass
Production: the amount of organic matter produced per unit area per unit time; biomass: the amount of organic matter stored per unit area at a specific moment
Woody & herbaceous swamps have the highest net primary productivity
The higher the vegetation within the ecosystem, the higher the productivity.
Limiting factor
land
temperature
The optimal temperature is high when the temperature is high, and the efficiency is low at other times.
herbivore
latent evapotranspiration
Temperature, humidity, radiation, wind speed
Water body
primary productivity formula
P=R×C×3.7/k
R: Relative photosynthetic rate, k attenuation coefficient of light intensity with water depth, C: chlorophyll content
Total daily radiation dose
Chlorophyll content
Water composition (clarity)
Determination
Harvest measurement method
Using dry weight, only available on land
Oxygen determination method (black and white bottle method)
Mostly used in aquatic ecosystems, initial bottle - black bottle = respiratory volume, white bottle - initial bottle = net initial, white bottle - black bottle = total initial
CO2 determination
radioactive label assay
Chlorophyll determination method
secondary production
Determination
formula
Intake = assimilation Fecal volume = net secondary production Respiratory volume Fecal volume
Secondary production = production of reproductive offspring, part of individual weight gain
Net secondary production = biomass change mortality loss
efficiency
consumption efficiency
Plants ↑, Herbivores ↑→ Plants ↓, Herbivores ↓→ cycle
Assimilation efficiency
Carnivores＞Herbivores&Crusheaters
Growth efficiency is opposite
Growth efficiency
There is no high spine, among the ectothermic spine, the endothermic spine is the lowest.
After each trophic level, the effective energy is reduced to approximately 1/10 of the previous level.
break down
nature
humus
Derived from wood, the basic component is humin, which is the most difficult to decompose
Microorganisms can decompose simple sugars, starch, and hemicellulose, but are difficult to decompose cellulose and lignin.
Complex and variable polymerization of lignin, with phenolic rings and hydrophobic
Temperature ↑, humidity ↑, decomposition rate ↑
decomposition index
K=I/X
I: The total annual input of dead organic matter; X: The total amount of existing dead organic matter
energy flow
Maintain high free energy to reduce entropy, continuously discharge entropy, and achieve stable equilibrium
Energy flow analysis in Silver Spring - H.T. Odum
Energy Flow Analysis at Cedar Bog Lake
Energy flow analysis of forest ecosystems - J.D. Ovington
Mostly part of the food chain
heterotrophic ecosystem
Mainly uses organic matter produced by other ecosystems to sustain itself
Root Spring - John Teal
The main source of energy comes from terrestrial plant residues
Cone Spring - Lawrebce Tilly
material cycle
global water cycle
carbon cycle
source
CO2 release library
exchange
CO2 absorption library
nitrogen cycle
nitrogen fixation
ammoniation
nitrification
NH3→NO2-→NO3-
Denitrification
NO3-→NO2-→N2O&N2
Phosphorus cycle
incomplete cycle
sulfur cycle
Interaction of element cycles
Main types & distribution
latitude zonality
Calories determine
longitude zonality
Moisture dominates
zonal vegetation
Reflect the climate characteristics of a region
vertical zonation
Deciduous broad-leaved forest → mixed coniferous broad-leaved forest → cold-temperature evergreen coniferous forest → dwarf forest → alpine tundra (from bottom to top)
freshwater ecosystem
rapids
high oxygen content
slow flow
The bottom layer is prone to hypoxia
coastal zone
transition zone between aquatic and terrestrial
lake swamp zone
upper layer
deep bottom
lower level
marine ecosystem
intertidal zone (coastal zone)
There are periodic tides
Shallow sea zone (sub-coastal zone)
continental shelf
semi-abyssal zone
Below the shallow sea zone, above the continental slope
deep sea zone
ocean bottom
oceanic zone
terrestrial ecosystem
Rainforest
Stem flowers
Subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest
Zhao Ye Lin
summer green broadleaf forest
Various temperate fruits
boreal forest
taiga
grassland
Herbs & xeric small semi-shrubs
desert
subtopic
tundra (tundra)
permafrost