MindMap Gallery System Philosophy
Philosophy is a theory that explores the origin of the world; it is a theory about the relationship between universality and individuality, entity and attribute, finiteness and infinity; it is a theory about the relationship between human existence and the existence of the world; it is a theory about people, society, nature , the theory of universal laws between human understanding.
Edited at 2024-10-23 21:31:37魯米:靈性覺醒的10個維度。當你停止尋找自己,便會找到整個宇宙,因為你正在尋找的東西,也在尋找你。任何你每天持之以恆在做的事情,都可以為你打開一扇通向精神深處的門。靜默中,我滑入祕境,萬般皆妙樂觀察身邊的神奇,不要聲張。你生而有翼,為何喜歡爬行?靈魂擁有了它自己的耳朵,能夠聽到頭腦無法理解的事情。向內尋求一切的答案吧,宇宙中的一切都在你體內。情人們並不最終相遇某處,這個世界沒有離別。傷口是光進入你內心的地方。
慢性心力衰竭,不僅僅是心率的快慢問題!它源於心肌收縮與舒張功能的下降,導致心輸出量不足,進而引發肺循環充血和體循環淤血。從病因、誘因到代償機制,心衰的病理生理過程複雜多樣。通過控制水腫、減輕心臟前後負荷、改善心臟舒縮功能,以及防治基本病因,我們可以有效應對這一挑戰。了解心衰的機制與臨床表現,掌握防治策略,才能更好地守護心臟健康。
缺血再灌注損傷是器官或組織恢復血液供應後,細胞功能代謝障礙和結構破壞反而加重的現象。其主要機制包括自由基生成增多、鈣超載以及微血管和白細胞的作用。心臟和腦是常見的受損器官,表現為心肌代謝和超微結構變化、心功能下降等。防治措施包括清除自由基、減輕鈣超載、改善代謝和控制再灌注條件,如低鈉、低溫、低壓等。理解這些機制有助於製定有效治療方案,減輕缺血性損傷。
魯米:靈性覺醒的10個維度。當你停止尋找自己,便會找到整個宇宙,因為你正在尋找的東西,也在尋找你。任何你每天持之以恆在做的事情,都可以為你打開一扇通向精神深處的門。靜默中,我滑入祕境,萬般皆妙樂觀察身邊的神奇,不要聲張。你生而有翼,為何喜歡爬行?靈魂擁有了它自己的耳朵,能夠聽到頭腦無法理解的事情。向內尋求一切的答案吧,宇宙中的一切都在你體內。情人們並不最終相遇某處,這個世界沒有離別。傷口是光進入你內心的地方。
慢性心力衰竭,不僅僅是心率的快慢問題!它源於心肌收縮與舒張功能的下降,導致心輸出量不足,進而引發肺循環充血和體循環淤血。從病因、誘因到代償機制,心衰的病理生理過程複雜多樣。通過控制水腫、減輕心臟前後負荷、改善心臟舒縮功能,以及防治基本病因,我們可以有效應對這一挑戰。了解心衰的機制與臨床表現,掌握防治策略,才能更好地守護心臟健康。
缺血再灌注損傷是器官或組織恢復血液供應後,細胞功能代謝障礙和結構破壞反而加重的現象。其主要機制包括自由基生成增多、鈣超載以及微血管和白細胞的作用。心臟和腦是常見的受損器官,表現為心肌代謝和超微結構變化、心功能下降等。防治措施包括清除自由基、減輕鈣超載、改善代謝和控制再灌注條件,如低鈉、低溫、低壓等。理解這些機制有助於製定有效治療方案,減輕缺血性損傷。
System Philosophy
1. General knowledge
What is philosophy?
1. Philosophy is difficult to define
As the matrix of all disciplines and cultural forms, philosophy is very simple to answer its denotation, but very complicated to reveal its connotation. "What is philosophy" itself is a fundamental philosophical question
1. For things or phenomena experienced (sensory perception), you can answer "what it is" through sensory perception, logical deduction, and scientific experiments.
2. Philosophy is beyond experience and highly abstract, because the object of philosophical thinking is inherently beyond experience and highly abstract.
3. Philosophers try to establish various modes of thinking, trying to approach and grasp transcendent and abstract things. For example: Thales's "Water Theory", Heraclitus's "Logos", Democritus's "Atomic Theory", Laozi's "Tao", Hegel's "Absolute Spirit"... .
4. These ideological models are subjective and speculative to varying degrees, and almost every philosopher defines philosophy differently. Our understanding of any subject always starts from the thoughts of our predecessors. This leads to the reason why the connotation of philosophy is difficult to fix and unify.
2. “Philosophy” from different perspectives
1. Think about the literal meaning:
Philosophy is the study of wisdom. Wisdom contains people's cognitive level and logical ability, people's ethics and moral cultivation, people's broad mind and lofty ideals, etc.
Summary: Philosophy is a higher-level rational thinking activity that aims to explain the relationship between transcendence and experience, subjectivity and objectivity, the whole and the individual, the universal and the general, and pursues the long-term and fundamental interests of mankind as a whole.
Second, think about the objects involved:
1. The object of philosophical research is the fundamental cause (origin) of the world, that is, the "beginning". Fundamentalism holds that the world originated from a certain "beginning" and then returns to this "beginning" after evolution and development. Starting from the pursuit of the origin, various theoretical doctrines were subsequently formed. For example: Socrates' "goodness", Plato's "ideology", Democritus's "atomism", Schopenhauer's "theory of will"...
2. The basic relationships of the world, that is, the relationship between people, society, and nature, as well as the relationship between various internal aspects of each of the three.
Summary: Philosophy is a theory that explores the origin of the world; it is a theory about the relationship between universality and individuality, entities and attributes, finiteness and infinity, etc.; it is a theory about the relationship between human existence and the existence of the world; it is a theory about people and society , the theory of universal laws between nature and human understanding.
3. Thinking from the philosophical content:
Philosophy makes the research object subjective and intellectual, and expresses it in the form of theory, which forms the content of philosophy.
Summary: Philosophy is a theory about ontology and metaphysics; it is a theory about epistemology, practice theory, and axiology; it is a theory about worldview.
3. Definition of philosophy
Philosophy is a higher-level rational thinking activity that aims to explain the relationship between transcendence and experience, subjectivity and objectivity, the whole and the individual, the universal and the general, and pursues the long-term and fundamental interests of mankind as a whole.
Philosophy is a theory that explores the origin of the world; it is a theory about the relationship between universality and individuality, entity and attribute, finiteness and infinity; it is a theory about the relationship between human existence and the existence of the world; it is a theory about people, society, nature , the theory of universal laws between human understanding.
Philosophy is a theory about ontology and metaphysics; it is a theory about epistemology, practice theory, and axiology; it is a theory about worldview.
Philosophy is the conscious and active ideological exploration activity of the thinking subject
Philosophy is the social trend of thought at a specific time....
Comprehensive summary
Philosophy is a science about everything about human beings
Comprehensive summary: Philosophy is a science about everything about human beings
object of philosophy
1. Introduction
All human knowledge comes from philosophical thinking on unknown areas. Philosophers use their subjective perspective, "unconstrained" thinking, and hypothesis guessing to explore the mysterious and unknown realm.
"Unknown territory" is the direction, "knowledge" is the result, but what is the starting point?
Both Western philosophy and Chinese philosophy take "human being" itself as the starting point. Philosophical thinking cannot exist without "people". Therefore: Philosophy is the knowledge of everything about human beings.
2. Macro level
1. Intuitive objects and reflective objects
The direct object of philosophy is the object of reflection, but it has an indirect relationship with the object of intuition.
1. Intuitive objects: objective things or phenomena existing in the sensible world;
water, fire
2. Object of reflection: refers to the thought or theory itself, as well as the product of the thought or theory itself
freedom, morality
Kant called reflection "reflective judgment", and poetry matches the species concept to the thinking activity under the genus concept. Hegel believed that people's intuitive formation of feelings and perceptions is the primary cognitive activity of people and belongs to the content of spiritual phenomenology. Reflecting on primary understanding to form concepts and judgments is the content of philosophy.
2. Objective objects and subjective objects.
Objective objects: things that are objective in nature, have no purpose, and have no connection with human beings.
Subjective object: refers to the objective object reconstructed by people's subjective sensibility, intelligence and rationality
Subjective reconstruction object
The objects of philosophy are mainly subjective objects. After subjective reconstruction, objective objects can be expressed in language
Why does Kant say that "things in themselves are unknowable"? Kezi said, "You are not a fish, how can I know the joy of fish?"
Summarize:
The object of philosophy is the object pointed by philosophical thinking, which is closely related to epistemology, practice theory, and methodology, and will gradually expand and deepen with the continuous enrichment of people's cognitive achievements.
3. Specific directions
Philosophical objects (origin of the universe, man and society and nature, subject and object, subjectivity and objectivity)
The origin of the universe
Origin refers to the decisive part, origin and fundamental cause of something. The origin of the universe refers to the origin and fundamental cause of the universe
Questioning the cause—infinite causal chain—not satisfying vicious infinity—assuming the ultimate cause—the origin of the universe, the beginning of all things, the root of unity—the philosopher’s subjective reconstruction object (subjective object)—original theory
1. Based on intuitive objects
In the early and middle ages of ancient Greece, philosophers regarded some intuitive material entities within the scope of sensory experience as the origin.
Thales' "Water"
Heraclitus "Fire"
2. Based on quantitative relationships
Number is the attribute and stipulation of things, and it is also the basic relationship between things. Heraclitus's "number principle" realizes the transition from material principle to spiritual principle
3. Based on ideas
Plato's "Theory of Ideas" enables the original discussion to move from intuitive objects (matter) and semi-intuitive objects (material ideas) to pure abstract objects of thought.
The basic meaning of ideas is "commonality", and ideas can also be called "universals". Plato believed that ideas are the origin of the world: the world of ideas is a knowable, real world; the real world is a perceptible, but only illusory shadow world. Everything in the real world is an imitation and participation of the ideal world. The ideal world contains the essence and ideal form of all things in the sensible world.
Example: You can never draw a perfect circle
The significance of "idea theory" is to reveal the relationship between the commonality and individuality of things.
4. Based on entities
Entity is the carrier of attributes and exists independently by itself. Attributes cannot exist independently and must depend on entities to exist.
Example: Rose (entity, logical subject) is red (attribute, logical predicate)
The entities and attributes in ontology are the subjects and predicates in logical judgments.
Aristotle (substance fundamentalism) believes that: specific things are independent and real entities, so they are the first entity; universals can only exist with specific facts as carriers, so universals are the second entity. The significance of entity fundamentalism is to realize the shift from asking "the origin and destination of the world" to asking "the structure of the world"
To explain the reason for the existence of the first entity, the four causes are: material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause.
Example: Why do smartphones exist? Material: metal, plastic, various electronic components Formal factors: screen size, operating system, memory size Powerful factors: research team, production line workers, raw material suppliers Purpose: meeting people’s communication needs, providing entertainment, information, and the manufacturer’s business purpose
Ten basic relationships (categories) in the world: entity (ontology), quantity, quality, relationship, space, time, form, possession, behavior, and suffering
people, society, nature
human existence
Studying "human being" itself as a philosophical object began in modern times in Western philosophy and has existed in Chinese philosophy since ancient times. Ancient Greece: "Man is the measure of all things" and "Know yourself"; China: Human nature's good and evil, right and wrong mind
Modern Western philosophy: abstract "human nature" and explore freedom, equality, fraternity, human rights, etc.
Modern Western philosophy: regards human irrational factors as the essence of human beings, and explores the significance of human intuition, will, subconsciousness, etc. to the existence of people and the world
Marxist philosophy: taking production relations as the basis for the emergence of human nature
social existence
Early Western philosophy rarely dealt with social existence, and the main content discussed was limited to the macro-order of society, the principles of ideal society, and moral principles. "The Apology of Socrates" and "The Republic"
Except for Lao and Zhuang, almost all Chinese philosophy discusses social existence. Focusing on social macro order, ideal society, moral principles, rules and regulations
Modern Western philosophy on the scope of social existence, the state, law, public power, and the laws of human historical development
The scope of discussion of modern Western philosophy includes social order, the roots of social development, the driving force of social progress, macrostructure, existing elements and relationships, etc.
natural existence
In the early days, he mainly discussed the existence of nature, discussing what nature is, existence and non-existence, the driving force of the movement of the natural world, and how all natural things are generated.
With the development of natural science in modern times, the mechanical view of nature emerged, which is based on Newtonian mechanics and Laplace dynamics to explore the operating mechanisms of nature.
The basic relationship between the three
Philosophy takes the basic relationship between the three as its object and discusses the unity and difference
The unity of the world is the basis of the relationship between human beings, society, and nature, and also the basis of the internal elements of each of the three. Its significance is not only theoretical, but also important in practice.
The diversity of the world is also the basis for the relationship between human beings, society, and nature, as well as the basis for the internal elements of each of the three. The word "all things" indicates that all things in the world are different in terms of time, space, conditions, nature, structure, etc. Of course, the three objects of human beings, society, and nature have different laws of existence and development.
subject and object
The relationship between subject and object
Refers to the relationship between people and the external world (society, nature)
People are the subject, the originator of behavior, and the active party;
Society and nature are objects, objects of behavior, and passive parties
Philosophy should explore: the prerequisites and conditions for the establishment of subject and object, the form and mediation of their interaction, the nature, structure and characteristics of both
Subjective and objective
Subjectivity and objectivity are subdivisions of the relationship between subject and object, and are one aspect of the relationship between subject and object. The essence of philosophical discussion of "thinking and existence" is the relationship between subjectivity and objectivity
characteristics of philosophy
Human beings combine sensory materials and human instincts for rational processing to form abstract ideas, that is, "culture". Different cultural forms have their own characteristics.
Characteristics of philosophy: transcendence, integrity, overarching
transcendence
Transcendence refers to transcending sensory experience and material existence and entering the realm of abstraction
Originating from experience and transcending experience
Transcendence in a broad sense manifests itself in three types:
1. Transcendence of daily consciousness. The main manifestation is that concepts, judgments, and reasoning are formed based on sensory experience, and then expressed in daily language. The essence is to grasp the concrete facts perceived by the senses in the form of thinking.
2. The transcendence of scientific thought. It manifests itself as using scientific methods and under the guidance of scientific theories to conduct observations and experiments on scientific facts and the relationships between them, to derive relevant concepts, judgments, and reasoning, and to express them using scientific terms or artificial symbols. Its essence is that the research group constructs facts, phenomena, and relationships using an agreed ideological paradigm.
3. The transcendence of philosophical theories. Move into more abstract, transcendent realms based on everyday consciousness and scientific thought, or on the relationship between these consciousnesses and facts. Philosophy uses more abstract concepts (categories) to reveal and construct "universals", basic properties, and deep relationships that are different from the empirical world.
Example: material, social, spiritual, freedom
Transcendence in a narrow sense, specifically referring to the transcendence of philosophy
1. The transcendence of philosophical objects. The object of philosophy is the object of reflection and is not directly related to the empirical world.
2. The transcendence of philosophical expressions. Thinking activities such as philosophical discussion, thinking, and criticism are expressed through (logical) concepts, propositions, reasoning, and other forms.
3. Philosophy reconstructs the transcendence of the world. When philosophy grasps the world, it reconstructs the world according to human sensibility, intelligence, and rationality. This world reconstructed by philosophy is the unity of opposites between human purpose and the objective necessity of the empirical world. Subjective factors such as human purpose and value speculation are all transcendent.
Only when people think in the transcendental realm (metaphysical thinking) can they generate the direction of life and the source of motivation, that is, ideals and beliefs.
Wholeness
The integrity of general philosophy is divided into two levels: individual integrity and world integrity.
individual wholeness
It is composed of all aspects, levels, attributes, internal and external connections, possibility and reality, existence and development of the thing, as well as the causes and laws of these situations. All the above elements are listed and combined according to their inherent structural priorities, laws and order, which is the whole of a thing.
The habit of scientific research is to divide a whole thing into several unrelated aspects or parts, and then conduct in-depth and enlarged exploration and research on these independent aspects or parts. This achieves in-depth understanding, but it will lose horizontal understanding. . May lead to one-sided understanding
Philosophy fundamentally provides guidance on the overall view of things, avoiding or reducing deviations and omissions in logical thinking activities.
the wholeness of the world
It refers to the integrity of people, society and nature. In common sense thinking, people tend to make a cognitive error, "seeing only the trees but not the forest."
Ignoring the wholeness, it is easy to attribute the attributes of a certain part to the attributes of the whole (partial worship)
For example: totem worship, reproductive worship, machine worship, commodity worship, money worship
Modern “cult of numbers”
overarching
The overarching nature of philosophy refers to the fact that philosophy, as a social trend of thought, has a leading role in the spirit of an era, other cultural forms, social consciousness, etc.
The object of perceptual cognitive activities is the phenomenon (representation) of the external world, and the corresponding cultural forms are literature and art.
Intellectual cognitive activities are normative and process perceptual materials through thinking to form empirical judgments. The object is the essence and laws of the external world within a certain level and scope, and the essence and laws are relatively stable. Its corresponding cultural form is science
The objects of rational cognitive activities are the objective world, subjective spirit, and the unity of the two. In this stage of understanding, the thinking subject unifies knowledge to form a universal and holistic principle. Its corresponding cultural form is philosophy
Literature and art are emotional, science is one-sided and rational, and philosophy is dialectical and rational, which is the highest form of rationality. According to the three thinking classes for human beings to understand the world, philosophy has the overarching character
Literature and art, science, ethics, religion, etc. provide rich materials for philosophical reflection and criticism. At the same time, philosophy provides a unified transcendent goal for these cultural forms.
2. Methods
Philosophical unique way of thinking
Introduction:
The so-called "thinking" is a conscious activity unique to human beings. "Si" means "thinking"; "dimensional" means "continue". It has depth and breadth in content and continuity and continuity in time.
According to different forms of consciousness, thinking can be divided into logical thinking and non-logical thinking.
Logical thinking: using human intelligence and rational cognitive activities as the carrier, in the form of concepts, judgments, and reasoning
Non-logical thinking: using people’s perceptual cognitive activities as the carrier, in the form of imagery, imagination, and association
Art, literature, corporate culture
According to the object and content of thinking, thinking can be divided into many types.
Such as: daily thinking, literary and artistic thinking, scientific thinking, religious thinking, philosophical thinking, etc.
Philosophical thinking is based on formal logic and combined with rational dialectics.
Features
Transcendence
critical
reflective
The transcendence of philosophical thinking
Transcendental thinking refers to thinking that goes beyond the scope and current situation of the thinking object. The "transcendence" of philosophical thinking means that thinking activities leave the object itself and point to the scope beyond the object. It is both abstract and logical. Specifically point to "past" and "future"
Pointing to the transcendence of the "past"
aiming at essence or cause
Find the essence or cause from the thing itself
Remove the false and preserve the true
from here to there
From the outside to the inside
Aim for results
Start from the thing itself to explore the results. The pursuit of results is what philosophy and science have in common. Philosophy regards the search for results as a permanent thinking goal and forms a habit of thinking. It is also accompanied by a critical examination of the conditions that make the results valid; Science’s search for results is only a phased process
Aiming at "being"
Examine the premise and necessity of the existence of things. Thinking about the rationality and necessity (contingency) of "existence" is the unique mission of philosophy. Mainly reflected in the social field or artificial natural neighborhoods.
Pointing to the transcendence of the "future"
compared to the current value of something
Current value refers to the meaning and effect of the thing on people and other things at the current stage;
Potential value refers to the meaning and effect that certain attributes or potential of the thing may have on people and other things in the future.
Compared with practicality and utilitarianism
Philosophical thinking pays more attention to comprehensive progress and development.
"Comprehensiveness" includes not only the comprehensiveness of society as a whole, but also the comprehensiveness of all aspects of human beings.
Philosophy explores the origin of the world, human beliefs, human beings, ethics, human nature, freedom, fairness, justice and other topics. The objects are neither individual, local, short-term, nor purely material. This is that "compared to practicality and utilitarianism, philosophical thinking pays more attention to comprehensive progress and development."
Practicality expresses actual uses and functions
Utilitarianism expresses efficiency and benefit.
Both are essentially material interests
The transcendent thinking of philosophy guides people to "enough is enough" and skips local and immediate material interests. Coordinate the relationship between local and whole, immediate and long-term, material and spiritual interests from a macro perspective
philosophical critical thinking
Introduction
Critical thinking refers to clarifying the conditions and roots of the establishment of the object through comprehensive analysis and investigation of the object of thought, revealing its limitations and scope of application, and predicting possible fallacies that may arise when the object exceeds its scope of application.
It means that the thinking subject does not blindly accept objects or knowledge without rational examination
The critical nature of philosophical thinking is innate, because philosophy sets out to face unknown fields from the very beginning, and must ask "what" and "why" in everything.
Example
1. Heraclitus, “Learning does not make a person wise, otherwise Pygora, Xenophanes and others would have been wise long ago.” “If happiness comes from physical pleasure, then cows are happy when they eat grass. ".
2. Kant, "The criticism of thinking mainly lies in examining people's cognitive ability, limiting the scope of intelligence, and revealing that categories that exceed the corresponding limits will inevitably fall into trouble."
3. Hegel criticized modern empiricism, skepticism, Kant's things in themselves, agnosticism, antinomies and other theories. On this basis, idealist dialectics was created.
4. Chinese philosophy, "The child is not a fish, how can you know the happiness of fish" "The child is not me, how can you know that I do not know the happiness of fish". It is a discussion on the limits of human perceptual knowledge, expressing that human feelings are incommunicable and irreplaceable to a certain extent. "Dong Shi imitates the trend", Dong Shi does not know the conditions and scope of "flash", and follows the trend dogmatically, resulting in fallacy.
criticality of philosophical thinking
Where are the roots?
The essence of the critical nature of philosophical thinking is that philosophy pursues the ideal of rationality as its goal, exposes things in reality that deviate from the ideal or may, and points out the absurdity of the thinking habits.
The ideal goal of philosophy is freedom, eternity, and the highest good. Philosophical ontology always focuses on thinking and exploring these three ideal goals, which is the ultimate concern of philosophy. The ultimate concern of philosophy is its care for "people", and the critical nature of philosophical thinking is rooted in the ultimate concern of philosophy.
people
Man in Nature—Material World—Freedom
People in the spiritual world - spiritual world - eternity
Social Man—Ethical and Moral World—The Supreme Good
ultimate concern of philosophy ideal goal
How did it develop?
The criticism of philosophical thinking achieves the purpose of unifying subject and object after experiencing self-criticism and object selection in thinking activities.
According to their own needs, people explore the objective world with purpose, direction and actively, looking for things and relationships that are conducive to people's survival and development. "Purposefully, directionally, actively" is the consciousness of consciousness
Reflect the objective world and construct objects in accordance with the principle of unifying its own purpose and directionality with the objective inevitability of the object. Philosophical criticism is first self-criticism, examining subjective consciousness that does not conform to objective necessity; then it comes to the selection of objects, examining those objects and object attributes that do not conform to subjective purpose
Rethinking the object of thought and thinking from both sides of the object is reflection. The purpose of reflection is to examine the extent to which the subjective purpose does not conform to objective necessity, the extent to which the objective object does not conform to the subjective purpose, and whether there is any possibility of transformation or improvement. It is through constant criticism, reflection, re-criticism, and re-reflection that we can finally achieve the unity of subject and object.
Self-criticism—object selection (transformation)—unity of subject and object
In what form does it appear in thinking activities?
The negation of dialectics is an important manifestation of the critical nature of philosophical thinking. The critical nature of philosophical thinking is consistent with the negation of dialectics. It does not worship any authority, does not take subjective spirit as its only purpose, and is critical of its own negative factors. In fact, criticism begins with oneself.
philosophical thinking methods
Introduction
The ways humans understand the world are mainly divided into three categories:
Material methods (experimentation, practice)
Methods of thinking (logical methods, non-logical methods)
Comprehensive method (a synthesis of the first two)
Philosophical methods refer to the methods of philosophical understanding and research of philosophical objects, as well as the methods of expressing philosophical thoughts, mainly ideological methods.
The philosophical method is mainly reflected in two aspects:
Understanding and researching objects;
method
Intuition, guessing and speculation
conceptual explanation
dialectics
Questioning and Criticism
Express and describe philosophical thoughts (results of understanding and research).
How to establish a philosophical system
The difference between philosophical method and scientific method
The objects of science are the facts and phenomena of the empirical world. Including facts and phenomena in nature, society, human physiology and psychology. Its mission is to reveal the logical relationships, as well as inevitable and universal connections between facts and phenomena through the study of facts and phenomena.
Three steps:
1. Summarize facts and phenomena;
2. Process empirical materials into laws and theorems
3. Establish a scientific system
The research object of philosophy is thought and consciousness itself. Mainly summarize ideological materials and literature. The processing and sorting of materials mainly uses logical methods and is very flexible. There are no agreed terms and paradigms.
Methods of establishing a philosophical system
A philosophical system refers to an organic whole composed of philosophical thoughts according to a certain logical structure, which can be divided into broad and narrow senses.
Philosophical systems can be expressed in various forms, such as Socrates’ “dialogue style”, Confucius’ “quotation style”, Laozi’s “poetry style”, and Zhuangzi’s “fable style”. The systems of modern and contemporary philosophers all adopt the “argumentation style”
Although the manifestations of philosophical systems are different, and the specific methods are also different, the most common one is still the logical method. Including induction and deduction, logic and history, formal logical deduction, dialectical thinking, etc.
1. Intuition, guessing and speculative methods originated in the early days of ancient Greek philosophy
Intuition is the acquisition of the attributes of sensible things through the senses
There is a fundamental cause - wood, fire, air, earth - the origin
Guessing is a hypothesis about the cause and essence based on intuitive materials.
How the fundamental cause produces all things, and how all things return to the original - the interaction between the attributes of the original and its contradictory side to explain.
Speculation refers to the synthesis of intuitive results and guessed results, and pure reasoning activities without empirical evidence.
Describe the details of the mutual transformation between the origin and all things - reasoning without any empirical basis
Unique meaning:
established the metaphysical object of philosophy
Established one of the "ultimate concerns of mankind", nature and freedom
2. Concept interpretation method
Concept explanation refers to revealing the connotation of a concept and clarifying its extension. Formal logic uses the method of definition to reveal the connotation of concepts, and uses the method of division to clarify the extension of concepts. In addition to using formal logic methods, philosophy also uses questioning, deduction, and category methods.
cross-examination
Cross-examination means questioning, questioning, etc. Socrates' questioning method refers to exploring the truth and revealing fallacies through continuous questioning (from the side or opposite sides), and stimulates thinking subjects to think critically about their own beliefs and knowledge base.
Example: When people discuss the state of a certain thing or a certain phenomenon, they must first understand what is behind the state or phenomenon, that is, what is it?
Although the interrogation method is not a logical method and cannot produce concise and clear concept definitions, it cleverly avoids the one-sidedness of formal logic definition methods. While constantly enriching the connotation of the concept, it is also constantly eliminating things that do not belong to the connotation. While guiding people to pay attention to commonalities, they also pay attention to the relativity of characteristics.
Emphasis: The main purpose of the philosophical method is not to give a precise definition of the object, but to "exhaust" the different manifestations of the object under different conditions. From a philosophical point of view, the definition of any concept can only reveal part of its connotation, but cannot exhaust the entire meaning of the object. This is the difference between philosophical explanations of concepts (ideas) and logical definitions.
deductive method
In logic, "deduction" refers to the logical reasoning of deriving individual conclusions from universal premises; in law, "deduction" refers to the demonstration of the relationship between legal basis and objective facts; in philosophy , "deduction" refers to the process of inference.
Kant’s conceptual deduction method is divided into
Subjective deduction method (concept formation)
The subjective deduction method mainly demonstrates the three stages of the process from phenomenon to concept (perceptual-rational).
1. Comprehensive intuitive grasp. That is, human consciousness spontaneously uses time and space to synthesize various sensory elements into perceptions (time intuition, space intuition)
Key points
accept with sensibility
role of imagination
presuppositions of intellectual categories
2. Synthesis of imagination and reconstruction. Consciousness reproduces past perceptual representations through imagination, and together with new representations form an overall representation.
3. Synthesis of conceptual cognition. Different complex representations are synthesized and unified by self-consciousness into the same representation and concept of the cognitive object.
Objective deduction (effective use of concepts)
Mainly demonstrates the three stages of the process from concept to phenomenon (rational-emotional)
Effective application of concepts
1. From transcendental categories to thought schemas. Because transcendental categories are highly abstract, they cannot directly correspond to empirical concepts. Therefore, an intermediary is needed to connect the two, and the thought schema is this intermediary.
Schema: The purpose is to coordinate the relationship between sensibility and intelligence, and abstract logical categories are applied to sensibility and intuition.
Example: Causality - a pattern of time continuity
transcendental category
1. Category of quantity
Unity
plurality/plurality
totality
2. Qualitative category
reality
negativity
Restrictions/Limitations
3. Category of relationship
entity and accident
cause and effect
active and passive
4. Category of modality
possibility
existence
necessity
2. From thought schemas to empirical concepts. Through the mediating role of schemas, abstract transcendental categories can be applied to specific empirical content, and pure logical forms are combined with specific empirical content to form empirical concepts.
3. From empirical concepts to intuitive objects. From abstract knowledge or concepts, through the combination of transcendental categories and perceptual intuition, we can form an understanding of specific things. Completed the transformation from the conscious relationship of categories to the realistic relationship between intuitive objects.
Summary: Kant believes that concepts do not simply come from experience, nor are they created by pure reason, but are the result of materials provided by sensibility and the organization and construction of these materials through transcendental categories.
category method
Categories are basic concepts in various knowledge fields. They are divided into scientific categories and logical categories according to their different scope of application in the corresponding knowledge areas.
In the scientific concept system, some concepts play a leading role, constitute the basic framework of the entire system, determine the nature and form of the theoretical system, and reflect the development stage and level of the theoretical system. Such concepts are called scientific categories
Logical categories are reflections of the most universal laws of various phenomena and knowledge in the objective world, and are the most basic concepts commonly used by various conceptual systems or theoretical systems. Such as: essence and appearance, necessity and contingency, cause and result, individual and general
Category method is a philosophical method, and the meaning of "category" refers to logical categories. In this lesson, the so-called category refers to the concept that reflects the basic ways and basic relationships of nature, society and human existence.
Category Series and Category Interpretation
1. Pythagoras
Categories of numerical relationships and spatial relationships
Limited - unlimited
odd - even
One - many
about
straight - curved
Square - rectangular
social ethics category
good - evil
category of natural relations
Yang - Yin
light - dark
movement
2. Aristotle
Entity (ontology), quantity, quality, relationship, space, time, form, possession, behavior, suffering
The most important and core one is the entity category. He believes that only the entity category can be used as a subject in a judgment and can exist independently, while other categories can only be used as predicates and cannot exist independently. They can only exist through entities. Their main function is to explain or specify entities from different aspects. .
3. Kant
transcendental category
1. Category of quantity
Unity
plurality/plurality
totality
2. Qualitative category
reality
negativity
Restrictions/Limitations
3. Category of relationship
entity and accident
cause and effect
active and passive
4. Category of modality
possibility
existence
necessity
positive - negative - combined
Main topic
It is usually a preliminary setting of an ethics, principle or historical stage, representing a relatively stable state or concept. According to Hegel, any thesis contains its own contradictions, which will lead to its further development.
Antithesis
The opposition caused by the internal contradiction of the thesis appears, and it forms a direct conflict or opposition relationship with the thesis. The antithesis is the negation of the thesis and reveals the inherent problems and limitations of the thesis.
Combined topic
The thesis and antithesis are unified through a dialectical process, and the two are sublated and synthesized at a higher level to form a new whole or stage of development. The synthesis is not simply the addition of thesis and antithesis, but the result of their conflict and interaction, thereby reaching a higher truth or a more perfect state.
Other categories
Plato's ideas, wisdom, courage, temperance, justice
Confucius’ “Benevolence” and Laozi’s “Tao” and “Inaction”
Rousseau's "Liberty" and "Equality"
3. Dialectics
It is used not only for understanding objects and constructing objects, but also for expressing philosophical thinking and establishing ideological systems. As a philosophical method, dialectics can be understood in two senses: dialectics in the speculative sense and dialectics in the world sense.
Dialectics in a speculative sense
In the ancient Greek period, dialectics was a method of debate, which refers to a method of refuting the other party's point of view by exposing the contradictions in the other party's argument during the debate. What is advocated is the "Law of Non-Contradiction"
Heraclitus "For man, life and death, old and young, dream and waking, are always the same and transform into each other." War is the father of all things and the king of all things.
Lao Tzu said, "Misfortune lies where blessings depend, and wealth lies where misfortune lies." "If you want to weaken something, you must strengthen it." "If you want to abolish something, you must make it prosperous."
Dialectics in the sense of worldview
On the basis of inheriting the idea that dialectics reveals the contradictions within things, Hegel regarded contradictions as universal laws that govern the development of all things and the world. He believes that dialectics is the true philosophical method. Only through dialectics can we grasp philosophical truths and truly acquire other scientific knowledge.
Marxist philosophy established the concept of practice and theory of practice, proposed the role of spirit on material capabilities and the reaction of social consciousness on social existence based on practice, further developed the idea of dialectics, and regarded dialectics as an important method of understanding and transforming the world. .
Dialectical logic is the application and deepening of dialectics at the epistemological level. The former focuses on the study of the real world as a whole and its development laws, while the latter specializes in studying how thinking forms and logical structures conform to and reflect the basic principles of dialectics.
Modern Analytical Philosophy's Rejection of Dialectics
Modern analytic philosophy emphasizes using logic and language analysis as the main methods to discuss and solve philosophical problems. The rejection of dialectics is mainly reflected in the following aspects:
1. The rise of philosophy of language, which advocates solving philosophical problems through precise analysis of language structure and meaning. Dialectics emphasizes the movement of contradictions and the process of unity of opposites. This dynamic and informal description method does not conform to the linguistic accuracy and logical rigor pursued by analytical philosophy.
2. The position of logical positivism, which advocates that only statements that can be verified by experience or logical analysis are meaningful, and denies that certain propositions in metaphysics and traditional dialectics involve unobservable entities or processes. Such as "absolute truth" and "inherent contradictions in things"
3. Oppose metaphysics and criticize metaphysical theories for being too abstract and vague. Tends to transform philosophical issues into linguistic or logical issues rather than exploring the ontological structure and historical development laws of the world
4. Differences in methodology. Analytical philosophy focuses more on decomposing complex problems into simple components and using logical tools to conduct detailed analysis. It does not particularly emphasize the role of contradictions and conflicts in the cognitive process.
5. Influenced by pragmatism and empiricism, modern analytical philosophy tends to deal with operational concepts and specific factual evidence, while dialectics discusses more about the opposition and transformation between concepts, as well as the universal pattern of historical processes.
4. Questioning and Criticism
Questioning and criticism arise from the examination of old ideas and are also the beginning of philosophy. The establishment of new philosophical ideas must be established and developed through demonstration. Therefore, "questioning-criticism-argument" is the method for the emergence of new philosophy.
Surprise-doubt-criticism-argument-new conclusions, new ideas
question
Questioning means not believing in the premise, content, form, conclusion, etc. of the object of investigation, but expressing doubt. On the premise of excluding subjective bias, the root cause is that there are defects in the object itself, causing the object to be inconsistent with ideas or theories about the object. the solution to doubt, 1. Either transform the object itself, 2. Either change your thoughts or theories, 3. Either change the intermediary between the object and the idea or theory
Suspect
Usually refers to the subject's lack of confidence and uncertainty in some people, things, or opinions. It manifests more as an inner psychological state, which may not be supported by clear evidence or reasons, but rather a subjective feeling of disbelief or doubt.
question
It is a more active behavioral process in which the subject raises clear questions about people, things, or opinions through rational thinking and logical analysis, and expects to receive answers or further confirmation. Questioning is often accompanied by specific arguments or reasoning, with the goal of challenging existing beliefs or finding the truth.
Descartes, as the forerunner of the modern French Enlightenment, put forward the slogan of "doubt everything". All concepts that are not clearly presented before reason are worthy of doubt.
The purpose of suspicion is to establish a rationalist epistemology and promote the deductive method; The object of suspicion is scholasticism; The reason for doubt is that scholasticism offers no truth to men; The basis for doubt is that human reason is clear and self-evident true concepts
Starting from the epistemology of sensation, Hume questioned the validity of causality.
The reason for doubt is that causal categories and causal concepts are not supported by sensory impressions; The basis for doubt is the epistemology of sensory theory; The purpose of doubt is to reveal the causal categories and the relationships they reflect, which do not have objective and necessary validity.
Kant was shocked by Hume's skepticism because Hume posed a profound challenge to our understanding of the sources of knowledge and causation. For Kant, Hume's skepticism "broke the dream of his dogmatism" because Hume's views revealed that the foundations of inductive reasoning and scientific necessity in rationalist philosophy were uncertain.
dialectical criticism
Hume also proposed that knowledge obtained through empirical induction does not have objective universal validity, and this deficiency requires a kind of belief to make up for it. The process of human cognition is not only a process of logic and rationality, but also a process in which beliefs are involved. It is also a process in which rationality and irrationality work together.
criticism
Criticism is to expose the fallacy of the object. Dialectical criticism refers to pointing out the rationality of the object while revealing its errors. Elements of philosophical criticism: the object of criticism, rational analysis of the object of criticism, revealing the fallacy of the object, and discussion of the consequences of the fallacy.
3. Stage
ontology
1. The meaning of “ontology”
The purpose of establishing and using the concept of "ontology" is to explain and explain a series of subordinate relationships that exist in the world. Including origin and derivation, essence and phenomenon, entity and attribute, universal and particular, cause and result, individual and whole, as well as the affiliation between various levels of things or phenomena that have close relationships.
"Ontology" in Chinese comes from the free translation of "Ontology" in Western languages, and the literal translation is "ontology". Literally, ontology is a metaphysical way of understanding the world from the perspective of "existence" or "is". A theory that considers issues such as the existence, entity, fundamentals, and foundations of all things
The meaning of "fundamental theory" in Chinese philosophy is close to that of "ontology" in Western philosophy. It mainly discusses the fundamental reasons for the creation, existence, development and changes of all things in the world.
For example: Laozi's "Tao"; Confucius's "Heaven" and Mozi's "Love without attacking" "Principle" of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism; "Heart" of Lu-Wang Min-Xue
Summary: Ontology is the theory about ontology, which is the thing itself and the carrier of various attributes and relationships related to the thing. From a logical point of view, the concept of ontology always serves as the subject in judgments with "is" as the copula. Aristotle called it "substance", as did philosophers such as Descartes and Spinoza. Plato called it "idea", and so did Hegel. Therefore, the concept of "noumenon", such as the concept of "existence", must be more metaphysical in nature.
2. Different definitions of ontology
Origin is ontology
The basic nature of "origin" (primordial basis) is that everything begins here and returns here. "First cause" and "final destination" are all properties of the ontology.
The difference between origin and ontology
Origin (primordial foundation) refers to the source of all things, the basis of generation or the fundamental elements that constitute all things in the universe, and has the meaning of "beginning" and "beginning". The focus is on the question "where does everything come from?" To answer "Where does the world begin and where does it originate?"
Ontology refers to the thing itself that exists independently and has various attributes. It has the meaning of "existence itself" and "originally real existence". To answer "In the diversity and multi-level existence, what is the more essential and fundamental existence?"
Origin mainly explores the origin of things and the basic elements that constitute all things, while ontology focuses on the specific existence and characteristics formed by these elements. By analyzing the origins, we can try to understand the origin and unity of the world; By studying ontology, we can grasp the essential attributes and internal connections of things.
The being that can be thought of is the ontology
Parmenides believed that the being that can be thought is the noumenon, the most real existence. "Existence" can be thought of, but "non-existence" cannot be thought of.
Existence is not an abstract concept, but refers to the true reality that is unique, eternal, indivisible, neither born nor destroyed. It is knowable because it is an object that can be thought about. If it cannot be thought about, it cannot be known or expressed.
Non-existence represents the state or concept of the absence of anything. According to Parmenides' point of view, non-existence is not just "absence" or "nothing" in the real world, but an absolute state of negation. In his view, non-existence cannot produce existence, and existence cannot be transformed into non-existence. Therefore, "non-beings do not exist" is not only a logical statement, but also denies the view of generation from nothing or from something to nothing.
Under Parmenides' philosophical framework, "existence" is the most fundamental and ultimate description of the world. It is the absolute and only truth, can be thought of, and is the ontology. And "non-existence" is untenable nothingness, both logically and practically.
Idea as ontology
Plato believed that the idea is the prototype of all things, the fundamental existence, and the ontology.
"Idea" is the core concept of Plato's philosophy and the basis of his theory of ideas. It refers to the eternal and perfect reality that is independent of specific things and exists in a world beyond sensory experience.
All concrete things in the real world are imitations and participations of ideas. Specific things can only be close to the idea, but cannot be as perfect as the idea.
Example: Beauty, every beautiful thing in the real world is an imitation or participation of the concept of "beauty itself". "Ideological beauty" is the reason why all beautiful things are beautiful. It is eternal and independent.
Plato believes that "ideas" are the universals or common characteristics of things, and specific things, particularities, and personalities are all subordinate to universals or common characteristics, that is, ideas. Therefore, the idea is the fundamental existence and the ontology.
entity as ontology
Aristotle opposed Plato's "universal ontology", which advocated that single, specific things are real. This real existence is in the position of the subject in logical expression and is definitely called an entity. He advocated that entity is the existence itself, the noumenon.
Descartes believed that substance is noumenon. Entity is regarded as the fundamental element that constitutes the world and is the fundamental reality with independent existence. Both material entities and thinking entities are regarded by Descartes as basic existences in the ontological sense.
Material entities are characterized by extension. The main characteristic is that they have extension, that is, they occupy space and have physical properties such as shape and size.
Thinking entities are characterized by their active thinking ability. It does not have extension, but is characterized by its own thought activities.
Spinoza believed that substance is noumena. An entity is that which is known in and through itself. It is a self-existing, self-contained being that does not need to depend on anything else for its essence or existence. Attributes are the essential manifestations of entities, and the attributes of entities are as infinite as entities.
Four characteristics of entities
1. Self-causality
Entity is self-causal, which means that the existence of an entity does not depend on anything else. It itself is the source and reason for its own existence.
2. Infinity
Entity has neither beginning nor end, no boundaries or limitations.
3. Eternity
Entity is eternal, that is, it always exists, there is no process of creation and destruction, and it transcends the categories of time and change.
4. Indivisibility
Entity is indivisible, integrated, unified, and cannot be broken down into smaller parts
God as substance
Anselmo claimed that God is existence itself and proposed an ontological proof of the existence of God.
logical steps
1. Define God: “A being greater than all that can be conceived.”
2. Conceptual existence is better than simply understood existence: if a thing only exists in people’s thinking or understanding, rather than in objective reality, then this thing is not truly complete because it lacks the attribute of existence.
3. Logical inference: Based on the above principles, if we imagine a supreme existence (i.e. God), then this existence should not only be the most complete in our understanding, but also the most complete in reality. If not, we can imagine an existence that is more perfect than God, that is, one that has both perfection in understanding and perfection in reality. This would negate the original definition of God as the most perfect.
4. Conclusion: God exists both in the heart and in reality.
philosophical significance
1. Theoretical innovation and breakthrough: the first attempt to demonstrate the existence of God from a purely rational and logical perspective, without relying on experience and sensory knowledge. It marks an important turning point in philosophy's exploration of metaphysical entities, especially the existence of the highest reality (God). It opens the door to reasoning about the possibility of existence from the concept itself.
2. Discussion of the relationship between concept and existence: The core of Anselmo's argument is that he proposed that existence itself is an attribute, and it is the highest attribute. It triggered an in-depth discussion on the relationship between concepts and reality, and had a long-term impact on later generations of epistemology and metaphysics research.
3. Integration of theology and philosophy: The discussion on the existence of God is no longer limited to religious revelation and traditional authority, but can be rigorously discussed using philosophical language and logical tools.
Tao is the essence
During the pre-Qin period of China, Lao-Zhuang thought held that Tao was the ontology of the universe, the source of the universe, and the beginning of all things. The so-called "Tao generates one, one generates two, two generates three, and three generates all things", that is, "Tao" is considered to be the basis and origin of the existence of all things in the universe, and is the fundamental entity or principle that constitutes and regulates everything.
1. Theory of creation of the universe: Laozi believes that "Tao" existed before all things in the world and is the origin and foundation of the world.
2. Universal laws and principles: "Tao" as the ontology is not only the source of power that creates all things, but also the basic laws and rules for the operation and change of all things. This law is not affected by human will and naturally runs through the universe and the world. All the time of life.
3. Metaphysical existence: "Tao" as its ontology is an absolute existence that is formless and transcends sensory perception. It is neither a specific material form nor a general abstract concept, but what all things become. The truth behind everything is there.
4. Moral and value level: "Tao" is not only reflected in the physical generation process of the universe, but also contains moral and ethical significance.
3. Historical evolution of ontology
1. Traditional ontology
Traditional ontology mainly discusses issues such as the nature, structure, categories and relationships of existence. It is a theoretical study of "what is existence", "how existence constitutes the real world" and "what are the basic types or categories of existence"
Basic questions
1. The essence of existence: ontology first focuses on the meaning and characteristics of existence itself
2. Classification of existence: Philosophers try to classify different levels or types of existence.
3. Relationships between existences: explore the interconnections and influences between existences, including identity, causality, space and time relationships, etc.
Development stage
Ancient Greek philosophy ontology
Plato’s theory of ideas, Aristotle’s theory of substance
Medieval Theological Ontology
empiric philosopher aquinas
modern philosophical ontology
Hegel's philosophical system is considered to be the comprehensive system of modern philosophical ontology. In Hegel's philosophical system, logic reveals the inherent dialectical development laws of thinking categories. Natural philosophy and spiritual philosophy explore the dialectical development of the natural world and the social realm respectively, and they are both regarded as the embodiment and expression of logic. This system shows the continuous development process from abstract to concrete, from essence to phenomenon, thus providing a profound overall understanding of ontology.
Summarize
From the perspective of the development history of Western philosophy, traditional ontology refers to the ontology theory that was produced and developed in ancient times, the Middle Ages, and modern times, and is based on ideal theory, entity theory, atomism, and the existence of God. Modern ontology mainly includes the empirical theory of matter and objects, as well as the rationalist entity theory, ideal theory, monadology, etc.
2. Ontological doubts, limitations, and rejections
Traditional ontology believes that ontology is the "first cause" and "final cause" of the world. Different philosophical schools have different ontological objects, which are matter (nature, entity), spirit (idea, soul), and God. Doubts and limitations on ontology began with Hume and Kant. Modern logical positivism rejects traditional metaphysical ontology.
Hume's ontological doubts
Starting from the theory of sensation, Hume questioned the existence theory of matter, spirit and God. Sensation theory is the core component of its philosophical system and is an important branch of empiricist epistemology. Hume believed that all human knowledge and ideas originate from sensory impressions and inner perceptual experiences.
1. Basis of empiricism: Hume believes that all knowledge and concepts come from our sensory experience. He distinguished between two basic kinds of mental content: "impressions" and "ideas"
2. Epistemological stance: Hume emphasized that feeling is the only source of knowledge and advocated that we cannot obtain any knowledge about the world beyond sensory experience.
3. Doubt in causality: He believes that the inevitability of cause and effect that people usually think does not objectively exist in the thing itself, but comes from people's psychological habits.
4. Agnostic tendency: We cannot deduce the existence and essence of the world ontology from our feelings, nor can we determine whether material objects have forms independent of our perception, and whether supernatural beings like God are real.
5. Between subjective idealism and objective materialism: He did not explicitly support that sensory content is completely determined by the objective material world. On the contrary, his views are sometimes interpreted as leaning towards subjective idealism.
6. Subjectivist aesthetics: Beauty does not exist objectively in things, but is determined by the subjective consciousness of the observer.
Viewpoint: Hume believes that any concept people have is based on impressions formed by senses, but people have no basis to prove that they support the impressions of the three entities of matter, spirit, and God. Since there is no support from relevant impressions, these three concepts are illusory.
Kant's restrictions on ontology
Kant divided human cognitive abilities into three levels: perceptual, intellectual, and rational.
Perception is the intuitive ability that provides concrete content for knowledge;
Intellect is the ability to judge, and intellectual thinking provides the form of thinking for knowledge;
Rationality is the ability of human beings to reason logically
Specific content cannot be missing from human thinking activities, otherwise it will be empty. At the same time, human perceptual intuition is inseparable from the function of thinking, otherwise it will be blind and meaningless.
Kant combined epistemology to reveal the errors of extreme rationalist ontology theory. He believes that only recognizing the role of perceptual intuition and ignoring the role of thinking will make a skepticism error similar to Hume's; only recognizing the role of rational thinking and conducting pure reasoning without perceptual experience will make the mistakes of Leibniz and Wolff. Theoretical errors.
Logical positivism's rejection of ontology
Analytical philosophy with logical positivism as its main body initiated the rejection of ontology
Wittgenstein inherited the basic position of Hume and Kant and believed that the fundamental mistake of traditional ontology is that it always tries to think about the ineffable, but the result can only be some meaningless things that cannot be verified and are illogical. speak
"Unspeakable things" refer to those concepts, experiences and fields that cannot be accurately expressed in daily language or scientific language. They exceed the functional boundaries of language and can only be indirectly expressed or experienced through silence or action or life forms.
The "ontological" issues discussed in traditional metaphysics include the ultimate origin of the world, the relationship between spirit and matter, the existence of God, etc. These are all what Wittgenstein calls "ineffable things." This position challenges core concepts in a series of philosophical systems, from fundamentalism to Plato's theory of ideas, to the ontology of God, and Hegel's absolute spirit.
Logical empiricism further puts forward the criteria of "positivist principles" and "meaning" to distinguish metaphysical ontological statements from scientific statements.
The principle of verification asserts that a statement or proposition has meaning only if it can be logically verified by experience. Specifically, it is divided into verifiable principles and falsifiable principles.
"Meaning" standards include empirical standards and logical standards.
The empirical standard means that any concept or term that involves empirical content must have corresponding facts pointing out its existence; any proposition or judgment that involves empirical content must state the empirical content.
Logical standards refer to the fact that analytical propositions should symbolize logical rules and be able to judge their "true" value.
Logical empiricism rejects traditional ontological methods and conducts logical analysis of terms involving scientific knowledge. Any statement that does not correspond to empirical facts is regarded as meaningless
3. Ontological reconstruction
Irrational ontology transformation
Schopenhauer and Nietzsche inherited Hume's views and made them generalized objectivities, initiating the irrational transformation of ontology.
Schopenhauer believed that the inner essence of the world is will. "Will" is diverse, but the most fundamental one is the desire and impulse to survive, which is the "will to survive"
The will to live is unconscious and goalless, without any specific purpose, but only blindly pursues its own expression and reality; it manifests itself as the preservation and continuation of individual life; it is the source of pain because it can never be completely satisfied. Once one desire is satisfied, new desires arise, creating a never-ending cycle of pain.
Nietzsche believed that "will to power" is the essence of the world, and everything is an externalization of will to power. This is a kind of never-ending desire and will, a never-ending pursuit, which can be regarded as the ontology.
The will to power is the essence of life, the desire for power, creativity, self-transcendence and vitality. It embodies the power of an individual or living body to express life through continuous expansion, improvement and realization of its own potential.
In Nietzsche's philosophy, "will to power" is more of an explanatory principle or basic driving force for life phenomena. It does not point to an objectively existing entity that transcends individuals and the phenomenal world, but serves to understand the essence and value of life. Core concepts of the generative process. Despite this, this kind of thinking is still a sign of the transformation from traditional ontology to irrational ontology.
Summary: The transformation from traditional ontology to irrational ontology means questioning and transcending the traditional rationalist framework. The turn to irrational ontology is a subversion of the central position of traditional rationality. It attempts to deeply explore the nature of human existence and the universe from different angles. It no longer relies solely on logic and rationality, but embraces more psychology, emotion, subjectivity and other aspects. Irrational factors serve as an important part of philosophical research.
Reconstruction of ontological logic
Popper believed that adhering to a good and reasonable ontological belief has guiding significance for scientific research. As a scientist, you must have an ontological perspective as a methodological guide. Popper's "Three Worlds" theory can be seen as an expansion or defense of ontology to a certain extent. When exploring the relationship between knowledge, reality and spiritual phenomena through this theory, a more complex theory is proposed. world view.
three worlds
First world: the physical world or objective reality
Including matter, energy, natural phenomena and other things that are independent of human consciousness
The second world: the subjective spiritual world
It is composed of people’s thoughts, emotions, concepts, theories and other subjective experiences, which exist in the human heart.
The third world: the world of objective knowledge
Including various artifacts such as scientific laws, mathematical theorems, and works of art.
The connection between three worlds
1. The first world affects the second world through sensory stimulation
2. The ideas and theories of the second world are transformed into the objective knowledge content of the third world through human creative activities;
3. The knowledge of the third world in turn guides us to understand and change the first world. At the same time, it also continues to shape and develop the ideological form of the second world, because people's minds are influenced and educated by existing knowledge.
point of view
Popper believed that these three worlds are a unified and coherent whole, and there are cyclic interactions of upward causality and downward causality between different worlds.
value
This division can be seen as an expansion of traditional ontology. While recognizing material entities, it also gives human spiritual activities and their products a certain degree of reality status. He believes that although the contents of the third world are not physical entities, they still constitute a real and independent realm of existence. This obviously broadens the understanding of the core philosophical concept of "existence".
Quine criticized logical empiricism for rejecting metaphysical ontology. Objections have also been raised against the verification principle and meaning criterion of logical empiricism. He believes that the principle of verification only applies to a single judgment and does not apply to a complex knowledge system as a whole; the meaning criterion is one-sided in distinguishing analytical propositions and synthetic propositions.
the difference
An analytic proposition refers to a proposition whose truth value depends solely on the meaning or definition of its components without resorting to any additional information from the empirical world.
A comprehensive proposition means that its truth value not only depends on the meaning of the terms that make up the proposition, but also must refer to the actual state of the empirical world to determine its truth or falsity.
criticize
1. Objection to the dichotomy between analytic and synthetic propositions: There is no clear way to distinguish whether a proposition is analytic or synthetic. He believed that all meaningful propositions have some connection with the empirical world.
2. Holistic perspective and ontological commitment: Quine advocated that knowledge is an interrelated whole, rather than consisting of independent atomic propositions that can be independently tested by experience. The concept of "ontological commitment" is proposed, that is, when we use language to express, we have implicitly acknowledged the existence of certain entities.
concept
"Ontological commitment" means that when using a certain language or accepting a certain theoretical system, we inevitably make a commitment to the existence of certain entities. This concept emphasizes that through our sentences and theoretical structures, we are actually claiming that certain types of objects really exist.
Summarize
Quine criticized the logical empiricist view that metaphysical propositions are meaningless, emphasizing that ontological issues cannot be solved by logical analysis alone, but are closely connected with our language practices and the construction of scientific theories.
Husserl's idea of return
Husserl: Returning to the "life world", Husserl restored the theoretical tradition of pursuing certain, necessary and absolute knowledge in the history of philosophy after Hume and Kant.
He proposed the concept of "scientific crisis" in "The Crisis of European Science and Transcendental Phenomenology". He believed that the development of European science in the early 20th century led to a deep-seated cultural and philosophical crisis. He believes that with the development of positivism, logical empiricism and scientific rationalization, science gradually focuses on quantifiable and objective phenomena, and builds knowledge systems through mathematical models and experimental methods. This trend makes science lose its meaning in life.
"Life world" is the intuitive basis of people's daily life, including subjective and irrational dimensions such as value, meaning, and emotion.
The life world refers to the specific environment in which people live in daily life and the sum of various activities, practices and experiences carried out in it. This concept emphasizes the direct, pre-theoretical relevance of human consciousness to the world around it. It is preferred to the scientific world in three aspects: history, universality and creation order.
Viewpoint: Husserl believed that with the development of modern science, especially the increasing sophistication and formalization of natural science, scientists have gradually ignored the importance of these basic life-world experiences and intuitive understandings. This neglect led to the disconnect between scientific theory and ordinary people's lives, and ultimately triggered his deep reflection on the "scientific crisis".
How to return to the living world? Husserl's method of returning to the life world is mainly reflected in his phenomenological methodology, especially through "suspension" and direct intuition and description of the life world.
1. Suspension: Temporarily suspending identification with all our established beliefs, scientific theories, and metaphysical assumptions about the external world. (the representation itself)
2. Intentional analysis: Go deep into the structure of consciousness itself, especially explore the intentional nature of consciousness.
3. Intuitive description of the living world: direct, intuitive and detailed description of specific phenomena in the living world.
4. Discussion on the constituent elements of the living world: Try to reveal the basic structure and constituent elements of the living world, and point out how these elements are related to each other and jointly construct our world concept.
5. Transcendental reduction: explore universal cognitive laws and conditions that transcend specific experience and scientific knowledge.
Heidegger's ontology
Heidegger believed that the core issue of philosophy is the ontological issue with "being" as its core. He established a basic ontology using phenomenological methods. In "Being and Time" and other works, the concepts of "being" and "beings" are proposed.
Existence refers to the state, condition, possibility of existence and the way of existence of these entities. It is a process of emergence and unfolding. It is the basic structure by which things become themselves. Heidegger believed that "being" is the most basic question and the most forgotten question. Because people tend to focus directly on what beings are, rather than the meaning and characteristics of existence itself.
Exists are all things or entities that actually exist, including people, animals, objects, concepts, ideas, and all other specific things that we can perceive, think, and discuss.
relation
1. "Existence" depends on "existence". "Existence" is the basis for determining "beings" as beings, and is the condition that makes all beings possible
2. Existence has priority compared to all existences. All existents must first exist before they can gradually become authentic existents
3. All existence is always the existence of beings, and existence cannot exist without beings.
4. Existence is not equal to the sum of existences, nor is it an independent entity, but the basic framework that gives existence to existences.
Beings like human beings can question existence and make existence appear because of their existence. Heidegger calls this "being-there"
Heidegger uses "Dasein" to refer to the special nature and structure of human existence. It does not just refer to a person or a biological entity, but emphasizes that human existence has existential paradox characteristics that transcend biological and sociological attributes, that is, human beings in an ontological sense.
"Dasein" two states of existence
Authenticity: Have a clear understanding of one's own state of existence, have the courage to take on one's destiny, dare to face the possibility of death, and achieve true self-realization
Unauthentic: ordinary people, living by customs and social lifestyles, drifting with the crowd
Summary: Heidegger's fundamental ontology opened up a new direction for philosophy. It no longer focused on the analysis of fixed entities, but turned to the exploration of the conditions, structure and meaning of existence itself, thus opening up " The post-metaphysical “era.
4. Basic structure of ontological thinking
1. Why does philosophy need to establish an ontology?
1. The nature of existence tending towards unity and order will inevitably lead to ontological thinking
The world is diverse, with all kinds of existences. At the same time, the world is unified and orderly. The unity and order of the world are reflected in the fact that everything tends to be systematic and holistic through causality, inevitability, hierarchy, and mutual subordination. Philosophy summarizes and summarizes this systematicness and integrity with concepts, and it becomes ontology in a theoretical sense.
2. The dialectics of the creation, existence and demise of things will inevitably lead to ontological thinking
Any thing or phenomenon has a history from creation to existence and then to death. It is limited in time, space and nature. But on the whole, the existence of the world is conserved, infinite in time and space, and the possibilities are infinite.
3. Material entities are supported by nature, society, real people, etc. as content; Spiritual ontology is also supported by human psychological phenomena, psychological activities and their results as content. Although ideals are not equal to reality, ideals are derived from reality and will gradually become reality through people's practical activities and the evolution of the laws of the objective world.
2. Philosophical ontological way of thinking
Gorgias's Three Principles: Nothing exists; even if it exists, it cannot be known; even if it can be known, it cannot be expressed.
1. The existence of nothing: its core lies in the denial of objective existence. All human perceptions are based on subjective feelings rather than understanding of the nature of things.
2. Even if it exists, it cannot be known: This proposition is mainly related to epistemology and indirectly related to ontology. Human reason cannot penetrate phenomena and reach the essence of things, so even if things exist, we cannot truly understand what they are.
3. Even if it can be understood, it cannot be expressed: Language is a means of expressing and communicating "existence". If it cannot accurately convey the essence of existence, it means that in the process of constructing and understanding the world, we have no body or cognition. There may be deep difficulties with any structure.
Summary: Gorgias’s three skeptical principles are a fundamental challenge to human cognitive abilities and knowledge acquisition processes, emphasizing the relativity and limitations of human cognition, and embodying the depth of ancient skeptical thought. and sharpness.
Summary: The significance of ontology in the history of philosophy lies in the continuous exploration and construction of a theoretical system about the world’s existence mode, entity class structure and their interrelationships. It not only reflects human beings’ continuous questioning of the root issues of themselves and the world, but also Different philosophical schools have been continuously deepened and broadened in the process of development.
epistemology
1. Overview
1. What is “epistemology”
Epistemology refers to the philosophical doctrine that explores the nature of knowledge, the process and laws of the occurrence and development of knowledge, the results and verification of knowledge, etc. It is also called epistemology.
The Scottish philosopher Ferrier first proposed this concept in 1854. After 1862, the word "epistemology" was gradually widely mentioned in the form of a term. Questions about cognition have always been accompanied by the entire process of the emergence and development of philosophy. But the more systematic epistemological system emerged from modern European philosophy.
The further expansion and deepening of epistemological issues is regarded as an important turn in modern European philosophy. This turn occurred in line with the needs of modern European capitalism to develop productivity through science and technology. The progress of science and technology cannot be separated from the guidance of philosophical epistemology.
2. Core Issues in Epistemology
Epistemology is the theory about knowledge. It mainly discusses how humans acquire knowledge and what is the nature of knowledge.
Study our cognitive processes, cognitive methods, cognitive boundaries and possibilities of the world, as well as issues such as the authenticity, reliability and validity of knowledge.
core issues
1. Source of knowledge
2. The composition of knowledge
3. Means and methods of understanding
4. Growth and development of knowledge
5. Understand the relationship between the subject and the objective world
core content
The distinction and mutual relationship between subject and object
the nature of knowledge
Understanding the basis of possibility
source of knowledge
truth and its test
2. The distinction and mutual relationship between subject and object
1. The distinction between subject and object
In epistemology, subject and object are a pair of basic concepts when discussing the process of human cognition, and are used to describe the two basic aspects of cognitive activities.
Cognitive subjects refer to people who have the ability to understand and practice activities. They are in specific social relationships and constantly understand and transform the world in practice. Including individual subjects, group subjects and social subjects. As the initiator and initiator in cognitive activities, what we need to answer is the question "who is knowing?" The main characteristics include: naturalness, sociality, consciousness, and practicality
Who is knowing (subject)
Naturalness: The subject is a biological existence in nature and has physiological and psychological functions such as perception and thinking.
Sociality: It shows that the subject is formed in social relations, and cognitive activities are affected and restricted by social and historical conditions.
Consciousness: The subject can use language and thinking means to form subjective consciousness, and reflect and understand the objective world
Practicality: The subject directly or indirectly contacts the external world through practical activities and obtains knowledge about the object.
The cognitive object refers to that part of objective existence that is pointed to and recognized during the subject's cognitive activities. It can be various forms of objective entities such as natural things, social phenomena, and spiritual products. In cognitive activities, he is the pointed person and the passive one, answering the question of "what do you know?" The main characteristics include: objectivity, objectivity
What to know (object)
Objectivity: the object is independent of the subject's consciousness, exists independently of the subject's existence, and has objective reality that is not transferred by human will.
Objectivity: Only when objective things have actual contact with the subject and become the object of the subject's realization activities and cognitive activities can they be transformed into cognitive objects.
2. The historical process of distinguishing subject and object
The distinction between subject and object is a historical process. In the early days of mankind, subject and object were in a chaotic identity. It was not until the middle period of ancient Greece that Empedocles initially established the distinction between subject and object, but still maintained a relatively primitive identity with some kind of substance as the intermediary. In the pre-Qin period, Guanzi used the two concepts of "this" and "that" to distinguish the subject and the object in epistemology. He said: "What he knows is that; what he knows is this."
After the long period of religious theology in the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the geographical discovery, the Reformation, and the subsequent industrial revolution and technological development, people returned to rationality and initially established a one-sided concept of subjectivity. The so-called one-sided subject is relative to the comprehensive subject. The comprehensive subject is the unity of perceptual subject and rational subject, cognitive subject and practical subject, and the unity of subject and object.
The subject since modern times is characterized by the separation of sensibility and rationality, the separation of theory and practice, and the opposition between subject and object. Although the subject and object are consciously distinguished, the division between subject and object is still one-sided, and the understanding of the subject is still incomplete.
Marx's philosophy introduced the concept of practice and dialectics into epistemology and established a relatively comprehensive theory of subject-object relations. Ma Zheba The subject is understood as the real person in social relations who carries out practical activities and cognitive activities; the object is understood as the object that enters the human practice field and the human field.
3. The relationship between subject and object
The relationship between subject and object
unity of opposites
The subject is the initiator and bearer of understanding, possessing initiative and creativity
The object is the object to be recognized, which is objective and passive.
The two are in unity. The subject must contact the object through practical activities and act on the object in order to realize the understanding of the object.
interaction
The subject processes and transforms the object through practical activities. At the same time, the subject obtains the object information and forms an understanding of the object. The subject's cognitive ability and level are restricted by factors such as the attributes, structure, and laws of the object. It also affects the subject's understanding of the object. degree of certainty
mutual transformation
The relationship between the subject and the object is not static. On the one hand, the object can be transformed into a new object under the action of the subject. On the other hand, the subject itself also develops and improves in the process of transforming the object.
two-way construction
In cognitive activities, the subject not only reflects and recognizes the object, but also assigns meaning and constructs value to the object. The object affects and shapes the subject's cognitive framework and theoretical system through its own attributes and laws.
The basis of this relationship lies in social practice. Through practice, the subject continuously deepens its understanding of the object, and at the same time continuously improves and develops itself in the process.
3. The nature of understanding
1. The process and characteristics of understanding
Cognition refers to the process in which people, as subjects, understand and grasp the existence status, attributes, essence and development laws of things through senses, thinking and other means. It is the result of the interaction between people and the external world, and embodies the subject's cognitive schema and understanding framework of the external world. Cognition does not directly map reality, but goes through a series of complex psychological and thinking processes.
Subject and object of cognition and relationship
The subject of cognition: the person, the initiator and the bearer who has the ability to cognize
Objects of knowledge: objects that are known, including various objects such as nature, society, thinking itself, etc.
The relationship between the two: they interact and influence each other
Basic stages of understanding process
Perception stage (obtaining sensory information)
Perception is the starting point of knowledge. In the perception stage, information is contacted from the external world through sensory channels such as vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. This information initially enters consciousness in the form of feelings, forming an intuitive understanding of the surface characteristics and states of things.
Comprehension stage (processing and organizing sensory information)
Including thinking activities such as classification, generalization, abstraction, and connection, thereby forming concepts, judgments, and reasoning to reveal the inner connections, essence, and laws of things.
Verification stage (verify the truth of knowledge)
The truth of knowledge is tested through practice or logical derivation. Theoretical knowledge needs to be revised and confirmed in practice, or the self-consistency and rationality are proved through rigorous logical or mathematical methods, and the knowledge is constantly close to the truth through feedback loops.
cognitive properties
subjectivity and objectivity
Knowledge is the product of subjective thinking, and at the same time, it must be based on objective reality.
Relativity and Absoluteness
The relativity of understanding is reflected in the understanding and definition of a certain concept or phenomenon, which will change with changes in comparison benchmarks, observation perspectives, cultural background and other conditions, and has relative and conditional characteristics.
The absoluteness of knowledge is reflected in the stability, universality and unchangeability of certain scientific facts, basic principles or laws. They are not affected by time, space and the subjective factors of the observer, and have absolute and unconditional characteristics.
reflect and create
Cognitive reflection refers to the process in which people copy, grasp and reproduce external objective things or phenomena through perception, understanding, thinking, etc.
Creation of knowledge refers to the process in which people use imagination and creativity to reorganize and innovate existing knowledge and generate new concepts, theories or practical results on the basis of reflecting objective things.
main schools of knowledge
2-1, materialist epistemology
materialist epistemology
The core view is that cognition is the reflection of the human brain on the objective material world, emphasizing the primary nature of matter, the secondary nature of consciousness, and the decisive role of practice in the cognition process.
Three stages of historical development
ancient simple materialism
Emphasis on the existence of materiality as the basis of all phenomena, lacking in-depth analysis of the cognitive process
modern mechanical materialism
It inherits that matter is the origin of the world, and its explanation is obviously mechanical and metaphysical. It emphasizes that knowledge is a mechanical reflection of the external world, and ignores the initiative and dialectical nature of knowledge.
Ma/En’s dialectical materialist epistemology
Study the nature, origin, development process and truth standard of human understanding. Introducing practice into epistemology, emphasizing the initiative, dialectics and social history of cognition, proposing important principles such as practical determinism and reflection theory, forming a scientific cognitive system.
Core viewpoint: material first, practice determines understanding
material primacy
1. Materialist epistemology insists that matter is the origin of the world and the primary existence. Consciousness is man’s subjective reflection of the material world and is a secondary existence. It emphasizes the objectivity, practicality and historical conditionality of understanding, while also recognizing the active role of consciousness.
Practice determines understanding
2. The view that "practice determines consciousness" emphasizes the basic position and decisive role of practice in the process of human understanding. Practice is the source of knowledge (practice produces empirical materials), Motivation (practice requires solving new problems to promote the development of knowledge), standards (practice is the only criterion for testing the truth of knowledge) and Purpose (recognizing practical activities that serve to transform the world).
Summary: Materialist epistemology provides a scientific and practice-oriented theoretical framework for human understanding of the world, and plays an important role in criticizing the misunderstandings of idealism and metaphysics. However, it has certain limitations in treating the complexity of consciousness, subjectivity, irrational factors, and adapting to the progress of modern science.
2-2, idealist epistemology
idealist epistemology
It advocates that consciousness or spirit is the primary existence, and the material world is the product or reflection of consciousness. Believes that the source of knowledge is not the external material world, but the inner consciousness or spirit
historical development stage
Idealism in Ancient Greece and Rome
medieval scholasticism
subjective idealism
Subjective idealist epistemology advocates that human understanding and knowledge, and even the entire world, are the product of subjective consciousness. It believes that the individual's subjective mind or spirit is the only reality. The existence and nature of the external world completely depends on the individual's conscious activities, emphasizing consciousness. absolute dominance.
Example: Kant’s transcendental philosophy’s distinction between the phenomenal world and things in themselves Wang Yangming's "To Conscience" "There is nothing outside the heart, nothing outside the heart, and no reason outside the heart" Schopenhauer's "voluntarism" Nietzsche's "Will to Power"
objective idealism
Objectivist epistemology advocates that there is an objective spiritual or ideal world independent of individual consciousness, which is the true origin of the world. The material world and human consciousness are both products or manifestations of this objective spiritual or ideal world. They belong to the same idealist camp as subjective idealism. They all believe that consciousness (spirit) or ideas are the origin of the world, not matter. However, there are significant differences between the two in their specific understanding of consciousness (whether it is independent of individual consciousness), its relationship with the material world (whether it is independent of individual consciousness), and its epistemological focus (the source and goal of knowledge).
Example: Hegel’s “Absolute Spirit” Plato's "Theory of Ideas" Bradley's "Absolute Experience"
Summary: Idealist epistemology constructs a philosophical framework that centers on consciousness, emphasizes the transcendental nature of knowledge, and values the subjectivity and inherent creativity of knowledge. Its fundamental difference with materialist epistemology lies in its understanding of the origin of the world, the source of knowledge, Different understandings of epistemic processes, practical roles, and criteria of truth.
2-3, Epistemology in modern philosophy
Overview
Cognition in modern philosophy continues the discussion of issues such as the nature, process, conditions, boundaries, and truth standards of human cognition in the history of philosophy. It also incorporates modern scientific progress, cultural diversity, technological innovation, and criticism of traditional epistemological paradigms. Reflect. Analytical philosophy, existentialism, postmodernism
epistemology in modern philosophy
The exploration of epistemology in analytical philosophy is mainly reflected in the in-depth analysis of language and meaning, the advocacy of logical positivism and empiricism, the development of meaning theory, the detailed characterization of knowledge conditions and structures, cross-research with cognitive science, and the knowledge society. Dimensional concerns, etc.
The philosophy of language emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. Its background includes questioning of traditional metaphysics, the development of basic research in logic and mathematics, and the re-examination of the role of language in epistemology. He advocates clarifying philosophical issues through precise analysis of language and believes that many philosophical confusions stem from confusion and misuse in language use.
Logical positivism proposes the "verifiability principle" of knowledge, arguing that a statement is meaningful only if it can be verified by experience, including potential future experience.
The ordinary language school is a criticism and revision of logical positivism. Representative figures include Austin, Ryle, etc. It emphasizes careful examination of the actual use of everyday language and believes that the meaning and usage of language are closely related to its behavioral effects in specific contexts. They oppose reducing language to an abstract logical system and advocate returning to the practical application of language to understand its role in the cognitive process. For example, Austin’s “Speech Act Theory”
Quine's "holism" launched a fundamental challenge to traditional epistemology. Opposing the traditional view that sharply separates experience from theory, observation from theoretical statements, it advocates that all beliefs are part of an overall network that supports and corrects each other. Emphasize the dynamics, relativity and theoretical dependence of cognition.
The exploration of epistemology in existential philosophy focuses on individual subjectivity, intuitive introspection, the principle that existence precedes essence, ways of knowing beyond the dichotomy of subject and object, irrational cognitive dimensions, and criticism of the concepts of universal truth and absolute knowledge in traditional epistemology.
Heidegger, Sartre, etc. believe that human existence precedes its essence. It opposes the traditional concept of treating human beings as the embodiment of a certain fixed essence or predetermined purpose, and advocates that human nature is continuously generated and shaped in the process of its existence. It emphasizes individual freedom, choice and responsibility, and believes that people must create meaning for themselves in an uncertain and meaningless world.
"Dasein" emphasizes that human existence is a direct connection with the world, others and one's own existence. Knowledge is not a passive reflection of the external world, but is achieved through the activity of "being in the world".
"Existence precedes essence" points out that people give themselves essence through free choices and actions. Irrational factors such as emotion and intuition play a crucial role in determining individual choice and understanding.
The exploration of epistemology in postmodernist philosophy is mainly reflected in the relativity and construction of knowledge, the plurality and negotiation of truth, the dissolution and dispersion of subjectivity, the relationship between language and power, the fragmentation of knowledge and anti-grand narrative, As well as aspects such as skepticism and critical spirit, the purpose of these explorations is to break the shackles of traditional epistemology, reveal the social and cultural conditions of knowledge production, and emphasize the plurality, situationality, and criticality of knowledge. Representative figures: Foucault, Derrida, Rorty, etc.
Postmodernists question the objectivity and universal validity of knowledge in traditional epistemology and emphasize the constructive, relativistic and contextual nature of knowledge. It is believed that knowledge does not simply reflect external reality, but is jointly constructed by social, cultural, historical, language and other factors. Foucault "Knowledge and Power"
Criticize grand narratives, such as historical progress theory, enlightenment rationality, etc. It is believed that these narratives conceal diversity and difference and reinforce power-centrism. Lyotard "The End of Grand Narrative." Questioning the existence of absolute truth, believing that truth is often relative, pluralistic, and dependent on specific discourse practices and social constructions.
4. The basis for understanding the possibility
1. Brief description
The purpose of exploring the basic issues of the possibility of cognition is to reveal the ontological nature of subject and object and their relationship. Explain "why recognition is possible" and "how it is possible"
Understand the connotation of the basic question of possibility:
1. The ontological nature of subject and object
2. The ontological nature of the relationship between subject and object
3. How is understanding possible and how it is possible?
2. Answers from different philosophers or philosophical schools
Descartes said, "I think, therefore I am." He believed that the subject of cognition is the spiritual "I think" or self-consciousness; the object of cognition is the innate concept, which is also the spirit. Therefore, the subject and object of cognition have the same origin, and the basis of the cognition advocated is the thinking and spirituality of the subject.
Leibniz believed that the human mind is the subject of knowledge, and the mind is a monad with strong perceptual ability and memory. The mind and various types of monads have the same root and origin, and at the same time have the same predetermined harmony. This is the premise and basis for the possibility of the mind knowing objects.
Hegel advocated that the absolute spirit first externalizes itself into nature, and then generates the subjective spirit in the long-term evolution of nature. The subjective spirit knows nature and recognizes objects. Its essence is that the absolute spirit knows itself, and the same kind knows the same kind.
Xunzi: "Everything that can be known is the nature of human beings; what can be known is the principle of things." "If you know it in your heart, you can then teach it; if you can teach it, you can then keep the Tao and prohibit the non-Tao. If you take people with the Tao mind, then they will be harmonious. It is suitable for Taoists; it is not suitable for unruly people.” The mind has the ability to recognize and understand universal principles; At the same time, have the ability to express and communicate this universal principle; Finally, it also has the ability to practice universal principles from both the positive and negative sides. These four aspects are the basis of the possibility of understanding revealed by Xunzi
Skeptics and agnostics doubt and deny the basis of human knowledge. They either cannot understand the dialectical relationship between existence and non-existence, the dialectical relationship between subject and object, or they cannot understand perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge, The dialectical relationship between finite and infinite, absolute and relative, individuality and universality, etc.
for example
Dialectical relationship between subject and object. Skeptics often have doubts about the reliability of the relationship between subject and object.
On this basis, the agnostic may further argue that the gap between subject and object is essentially unbridgeable.
5. Source of understanding
Empiricism emphasizes the primacy of experience and the empirical basis of knowledge, while rationalism values the central role of rational talent in the formation of knowledge and the innate logical basis of knowledge.
1. The empirical point of view
Empiricism advocates that the only source of knowledge is sensory experience. All knowledge is a reflection or summary of experience, and there is no knowledge independent of experience. We firmly believe that "everything that exists in the intellect already exists in the senses", that is, rational knowledge ultimately still relies on perceptual experience.
Bacon proposed that "knowledge is the representation of existence", emphasizing that knowledge comes from direct perception of the external world.
Hobbes compared perceptual knowledge to the relationship between "action force and reaction force" in mechanical motion, emphasizing the physical basis of perceptual knowledge.
Regarding the generation of rational knowledge, empiricists believe that it is based on perceptual knowledge, and organizes, analyzes and organizes perceptual materials through methods such as induction, three tables (the inductive logic tool proposed by Bacon), calculation, and comparison. Generalize to derive general rules or theoretical knowledge.
2. Rational point of view
Rationalism believes that human knowledge comes from two sources, namely perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge. But at the same time, it is believed that perceptual knowledge is unstable and unreliable because of its individuality and variability, while rational knowledge has inevitability, universality and certainty, so rational knowledge is regarded as a real and reliable source of knowledge.
Spinoza put forward the view that reason and the "ideological nature" of external objects work together to produce rational knowledge. It is believed that human rationality is not isolated from the world, but is consistent with the inner nature of external objects, that is, "imagination". Through rational self-reflection and insight into the order of the universe, one can grasp the truth.
3. Kant’s summary of empiricism and rationalism
The differences between empiricism and rationalism are mainly reflected in: the priority of sensory experience and rational thinking in the cognitive process, the innate and acquired nature of the origin of knowledge, the inductive and deductive nature of cognitive methods, and the empirical conformity of truth standards. nature and logical self-evidence, as well as different evaluations of cognitive reliability.
Kant proposed the concept of "a priori comprehensive judgment" and believed that knowledge includes both the form provided by innate (rational) and the content provided by acquired (experience). It is argued that rational knowledge does not entirely rely on innate concepts, but also cannot be separated from the enrichment of perceptual experience; at the same time, perceptual experience can only form meaningful knowledge within the innate framework provided by reason.
4. The view of the source of knowledge in dialectical materialist philosophy
Dialectical materialism believes that human understanding is generated in the practice of transforming the world, and practice is the source and motivation of understanding.
Summary: Empiricism emphasizes the primacy of sensory experience; Rationalism focuses on the dual sources of perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge; Dialectical materialism advocates that knowledge comes from social practice and emphasizes the decisive role of practice in the formation of knowledge.
6. Truth and its test standards
1. Different views of truth
In modern Europe, some scholars proposed four types of truth. There are two definitions in the ontological sense: the consistency of a thing itself, the consistency of a thing and its appearance; Defined from an epistemological sense: it is the consistency between a concept and its reflected object; Defined in a logical sense: for the consistency between concepts
On the nature and function of truth, Some philosophers maintain that truth is a kind of knowledge; Some emphasize that truth is an exploratory activity; Some think it is a belief or ideal; Some insist that it is a tool; Some interpret it as a means to achieve an end; Some claim that it is a guide or guide for the direction of human behavior.
2. Correspondence theory of truth
The core idea of the correspondence theory of truth is that a statement, theory or idea is considered truth if and only if it accurately reflects the objects, states or relationships in the real world. It is presupposed that the object of cognition has characteristics independent of the subject of cognition.
China
The Mohist school's view of truth is consistent with "the things of the ancient sage kings"; consistent with "the facts of the people's ears and eyes"; consistent with "the interests of the people".
Xunzi's correspondence theory of truth believes that the value of knowledge lies in whether it carries the "Tao" (the fundamental law of the operation of all things in the universe), and truth must be consistent with the "Tao".
The west
Aristotle clearly stated the basic principle of "truth is correspondence" and believed that the truth of any statement or proposition depends on its ability to accurately correspond to things or events in reality.
Plato believed that truth can only be achieved when the understanding or expression of the sensible world is consistent with the world of ideas.
Bacon advocated the use of experimental methods and new induction methods to ensure the objectivity and authenticity of knowledge and make it better consistent with the actual situation of nature.
Spinoza emphasized: "True ideas must conform to their objects" and the structure and connections of ideas should be consistent with the actual structures and connections of things.
Hegel believed that the realization of truth is through the dialectical unity process of subjective spirit and objective spirit, in which the subjective spirit gradually approaches, understands and internalizes the objective spirit. Subjectivity and objectivity constantly adjust and interact, eventually reaching a dynamic and dialectical "conformity"
Kant reversely proposed that subjective knowledge does not passively conform to objective objects, but that the objective world must conform to the form and conditions of subjective knowledge. He believed that the formation of knowledge does not simply reflect the external world, but the subject's understanding of the external world through perceptual intuition and intellectual categories. The result of organizing and constructing empirical materials.
In modern Western philosophy, philosophers such as Schlick, Carnap, Russell, Wittgenstein, and Austin have inherited and developed the correspondence theory of truth to varying degrees, emphasizing that the truth value of a statement or proposition depends on its relationship with Real world relationships.
Questions about the standard of truth: Correspondence theorists believe that the test of truth needs to refer to an objectively existing standard that transcends individual cognition. Dialectical materialism emphasizes that the truth of a theory or concept does not depend on its consistency with an abstract, transcendent prototype, but on whether it can be verified in practice and whether it can guide social practice and achieve success. expected effect.
3. Cohesion theory of truth
The coherence theory of truth puts forward a new standard of judgment: the authenticity of a proposition or theory does not depend on whether it can accurately reflect or conform to empirical phenomena, but whether it can be compared with known propositions or theoretical systems that are considered to be true. Be contradictory or coherent.
Leibniz distinguished between factual truth and logical truth
Factual truth involves concrete, empirical content, and its correctness is mainly judged by comparing the theory with the actual state of the empirical world. It is probabilistic, meaning that even statements currently widely accepted as true may still be revised or rejected in the future as new evidence or more precise theories emerge.
Logical truth has nothing to do with empirical content. It is purely based on logical rules and language structures. It involves the logical relationship between propositions. Its correctness does not depend on the empirical verification of the external world, but is determined by the correctness and reasoning of its premises. guaranteed by the logical rules that the process follows.
Modern European rationalists, such as Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz and Hegel, emphasized reason, internal logic and system integrity, and tended to build grand and self-consistent philosophical systems. It is often independent of specific empirical facts and relies on the internal consistency of concepts, principles and logical reasoning to establish truth status.
Neo-Hegelians, such as Bradley and Blanchard, believe that truth should be a self-justifying moral concept or knowledge system without internal contradictions, rather than simply corresponding to external empirical facts.
Logical positivism, represented by Neurath, Hempel, Ayer and Quine. Its core point is to emphasize the importance of empirical basis for knowledge and meaning, but at the same time pay attention to the role of logical structure in the knowledge system.
Disadvantages: The main limitation of the coherence theory of truth lies in its incomplete theoretical treatment of empirical content. Although it can effectively analyze and evaluate whether the logical form of a theory is consistent with the known truth system, it cannot directly answer questions about whether the empirical content is true, and is often regarded as an incomplete view of truth.
4. Pragmatic view of truth
The main positions and propositions of the pragmatist view of truth:
1. Deny the definite object of knowledge: believe that knowledge does not point to some definite object independent of human experience.
2. Deny the objectivity of knowledge: believe that knowledge is not an image or imitation of objective existence, but the product of subjective experience.
3. The subjectivity and instrumentality of truth: Define truth as a combination of human experience, beliefs, and tools for action.
In Scotland, Hume emphasized the reliability of sensation and the subjectification of causality. It is believed that the reliable basis for human knowledge can only be human sensory experience. The existence of things beyond the scope of perception, such as material entities and spiritual entities, cannot be determined through direct experience, and therefore cannot become the exact object of knowledge. A profound criticism of causality: causality is not a real existence, but a subjective psychological habit formed by people based on experience.
Poincare believes that some concepts and principles in science are not precise depictions of objective reality, but are agreements reached by scientists to facilitate understanding and communication. It is argued that the effectiveness of truth is superior to its correctness and truth.
Peirce put forward the question of the effect of concepts and theories in use, replacing the concern about the reality and correctness of their content. Four approaches were also proposed: the stubborn method (focusing on individual intuition), the authoritative method (focusing on authoritative teachings), the transcendental method (focusing on universal a priori principles), and the scientific method (knowledge obtained through empirical testing). To confirm beliefs to ensure that concepts and theories can be effectively applied in practice.
How to confirm your belief
1. Stubborn method (individual intuition)
2. Authoritative method (authoritative teaching)
3. A priori method (universal a priori principles)
4. Scientific method (knowledge obtained through empirical testing)
Beauty, James advocated that the world is essentially a whole composed of sensory experience, in which there is no strict distinction between subject and object, knower and object. Truth is not the consistent relationship between knowledge and objects, but the consistent relationship between different experience processes. The so-called "true" is the name of any concept that confirms the process; "useful" is the name of the concept that has completed its role in experience.
Beauty, Dewey argued, is that ideas, concepts, and theories are nothing but tools designed by people to achieve their desired ends. The criterion of truth lies not in the truth or falsehood of a theory, but in its effectiveness or ineffectiveness in practical application.
Axiology
1. The evolution of “value”
Taking axiology as the content of philosophy is an important turn in modern philosophy. For a more concentrated and systematic discussion of philosophical content, there is a transformation process from ontology to epistemology and then to axiology. From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the anthropocentric philosophical value theory began to rise and develop rapidly.
1. Ancient philosophy: the origin of value issues
In ancient philosophy, Mencius demonstrated his profound insight into value issues by discussing the trade-off between "bear's paws and fish" and "life and righteousness". They put forward the basic categories of value discussion such as "desire", "desire", "take" and "give up". Put forward people's "righteousness and benefit" as the standard for value judgment. It touches on the difference between what is and what should be ideally. Through the fable of "self-contradiction", Han Feizi reveals the dilemma of people who forcefully pursue "getting both of them" when they do not meet the conditions because they do not understand the way to choose. It reminds people that logical judgment is closely related to value observation, and logical errors may originate from the distortion of value concepts.
In ancient Greek philosophy, Socrates shifted the focus of philosophical inquiry from nature to humans, emphasized the importance of individual moral quality and value judgment, and started a human-centered philosophical tradition. Protagoras put forward the proposition that "man is the measure of all things", emphasizing the decisive role of human subjective cognition in evaluating the existence of things.
2. Modern philosophy: discussion of value in the context of natural sciences
In modern European philosophy, philosophers began to deeply explore the relationship between necessity and freedom, what is and should be, and fact and value. Hume was the first to raise the question of whether we can deduce oughts (values) from what we are (facts). Kant further distinguished between natural science (the study of real things) and moral philosophy (the study of ought things), that is, real things and ought things, emphasizing the independence of value judgments and the transcendental nature of moral laws.
Regarding the development and systematization of axiology, Lotze introduced the concept of value into philosophy and pioneered the division of the world into the field of facts, the field of universal laws and the field of value.
Windelban emphasized philosophy as the vitality of value science and believed that nature can be explained through laws, while historical culture must be understood and interpreted with the help of values.
Rickert advocated that the world consists of two parts: reality and value, and the core issue of philosophy is to explore the relationship and unity between the two.
3. Modern philosophy’s deepening of value
Modern philosophy has further deepened its exploration of value issues. Logical positivists represented by Schlick believe that science and value are essentially different.
Modern humanistic philosophy places subjective factors such as human will, beliefs, needs, personality, and experience at the core of the theory of value, and believes that these factors form the basis of individual value judgments.
Marx's labor theory of value points out that labor practice is not only the process of creating people and society, but also the process of realizing the essence and value of people.
2. Main issues in value theory
1. Values and Values
value
Value refers to the usefulness or benefit that an object has to the subject. The existence of value depends on the relationship between the subject and the object, and there is no isolated value.
concept of value
elements of value generation
The subject is the evaluator and beneficiary of value and has certain needs, goals or interests;
The object has attributes, structure or functions that can meet the needs of the subject.
production mechanism
Based on the interactive relationship between the subject and the object, we can judge whether the object has value, that is, value judgment. The size of value is not fixed, but is closely related to the degree and scope of satisfaction of the subject's needs.
Value
values
Values are an overall cognitive framework and basic viewpoint on values and value relationships that people gradually form in the process of social practice. The core issue is to determine the criteria for evaluating value, that is, how to weigh, compare, and prioritize those values among numerous value objects, and how to guide individual or collective behavioral decisions based on these criteria.
Value connotation
Values are spontaneously formed in the process of people's daily practice and understanding. They are the crystallization of experience, emotion and cognition accumulated by the subject in the process of constantly resolving value conflicts and responding to life challenges.
Formation process
Correct values refer to values that are consistent with objective laws, the requirements of social progress and human well-being. Incorrect values, on the contrary, may cause individual behavior to deviate from the right track, imbalance social relations, or hinder the progress of human civilization.
qualitative distinction
The formation of an individual's values is deeply influenced by various conditions such as his or her social status, lifestyle, environment, and subject interest needs.
practical significance
Summary: Value theory explores the concept of value, its generation mechanism, the basis for judging value, as well as the connotation, formation process, nature distinction standards and practical significance of values. Understanding value theory helps us better understand and deal with value issues in real life, clarify the value orientation of individuals and society, and promote social harmony and progress.
2. Classification of value
In terms of existence, there are six main types of value:
material value and spiritual value
material value
Material value is divided into natural value and economic value. This division distinguishes between naturally formed and artificially created values.
Natural value, also known as environmental value or ecological value, refers to the specific relationship between life systems and environmental systems in nature.
Economic value refers to the value created by human beings in practical activities of transforming the natural world (agricultural production, industrial manufacturing, resource development) and can meet people's material needs for clothing, food, housing, transportation, and use.
The material value of life refers to the value created by individuals as subjects in their life practice to meet the material needs of society, the country, the collective, and the individual themselves.
spiritual value
Spiritual value refers to the relationship established between objects (including nature, society, spiritual products, etc.) and people’s spiritual and cultural needs, as well as the resulting spiritual pursuits. It is further subdivided into intellectual value, moral value, aesthetic value and religious value.
The value of knowledge is reflected in its direct effect on improving people's cognitive and practical abilities.
Moral value is the value of good embodied in people's moral behavior, moral quality and moral ideals
Aesthetic value refers to the spiritual enjoyment produced in the interaction process of nature, material, spirit and subject.
The value of religion is reflected in its provision of spiritual sustenance, moral guidance and social cohesion for believers.
intrinsic value vs. extrinsic value
intrinsic value
Intrinsic value (purpose value) refers to the value form when the inherent moral, intellectual, physical, energy, learning and other qualities possessed by an individual have not yet been expressed, not yet objectified, and have not yet had a direct impact on the subject. It reflects an individual's potential qualities and abilities and is the basis for his or her future value creation.
extrinsic value
Extrinsic value is the externalization or objectification of intrinsic value, which reflects an individual's actual contribution to society and is the manifestation of intrinsic value being realized in real life.
internal and external value relationship
interconnected
Intrinsic value provides the basis and premise for the generation of extrinsic value. Extrinsic value is the embodiment and play of intrinsic value
Implementation process
The essence of value realization in life is the process of continuous transformation of intrinsic value into external value.
Value unity
The unity of internal and external values means that individuals not only have good intrinsic values but also transform them into common external values recognized by society to achieve the unity of individual values.
Existing value and due value
Existing value: the form of value that has been realized
Should have value: There should be a form of value that has not yet been realized
Other types of value
Potential value and actual value
Self-worth and social value
inherent value
value-for-itself
create value
realize value
3. Main issues of values
1. Classification of consciousness and value consciousness
Classification of human consciousness
Fact consciousness focuses on objectively existing facts, and its core is the accurate and objective understanding of objective reality.
Value consciousness is the awareness of objectively existing values and value relationships. In essence, it is the reflection of objectively existing values and value relationships in human consciousness, embodying people's subjective evaluation and attitude towards life, society, morality, aesthetics and other aspects.
value consciousness includes
Value Psychology and Value Concepts
Value psychology: subjective feeling tendencies such as intentions, interests, hobbies, desires, wishes, emotions, emotions, will, etc.
Value concepts: conceptual models for judging phenomena and things, such as: environmental protection concepts, fairness and justice concepts
Value awareness and value knowledge
Value understanding: the process of people’s understanding of value phenomena and laws, including understanding of the essence, source, and conditions for realization of value, etc.
Value knowledge: It is the crystallization of value understanding. Together with factual knowledge, it plays a key role in the formation of value concepts.
Three levels of value consciousness
1. Value psychology, value perception, and value experience (perceptual value knowledge)
spontaneous, irrational
2. Value concept and rational value understanding
Value concept, judgment, reasoning, choice; rational
3. Values (highest level)
Broad sense: philosophical axiology, systematic value system
Narrow sense: the concept of its dominant role in daily life
2. The connotation and function of values
connotation
Values are the fundamental views, fundamental opinions and fundamental attitudes about value and value relationships formed by people in practice.
It is reflected in people’s value orientation and value pursuit in all areas of life. It also manifests as the standards and framework for people to evaluate the value of things and the size of their value.
Function
At the micro level, values constitute a complete belief system including value beliefs, value goals, value pursuits, value standards, value norms, value orientation, etc.
Such as: Honesty and trustworthiness, impartiality and selflessness
At the macro level, values are the core and soul of social culture and determine the tone and direction of social culture.
Such as: personal freedom, equality, freedom, democracy
3. Value evaluation criteria
Due to the relativity of value, when faced with limited resources or conflicts, people must evaluate and choose between different values. In the process of evaluation, people first understand the attributes and characteristics of things, and then combine their own needs and values to judge whether they are valuable to themselves and how valuable they are, thereby determining their own value orientation.
Common examples of value evaluation: good and evil, beauty and ugliness, pros and cons, gains and losses, misfortune, honor and disgrace, quality, nobility, usefulness, useless, cute and hateful, appropriate or inappropriate, worthy or not, should or not, important or not, priorities, etc.
Summary: Values are people’s main evaluation of value phenomena. They are composed of value psychology, value concepts, value understanding, value knowledge, etc., and are multi-layered. It plays an important function in personal and social life, and its main issues involve the setting of standards for value evaluation.
4. Value evaluation
1. Concept explanation
Value evaluation is a process in which evaluation subjects (such as individuals, groups, societies, etc.) subjectively evaluate or value specific value relationships. For the same thing or the same value relationship, different evaluation subjects will produce different evaluations.
The reasons leading to this kind of subjective arbitrariness: class position restrictions, cognitive level restrictions, and the influence of subject status.
The final positive or negative evaluation made by the evaluation subject and its degree directly depend on the needs in his consciousness.
Scientific value evaluation requires compliance with the objective nature of things and development laws, social and historical development trends, and the common interests of mankind.
As an evaluation subject, we should also establish correct values, scientifically understand the relationship between the attributes, laws and human needs of things, and avoid evaluation based solely on subjective desires.
2. Value judgment
Value judgment is the purposeful and conscious advance understanding and prediction activity of the possible results of value relationships. It is based on empirical research to creatively predict the possible results of the interaction between value subjects and value objects in the future.
Creatively proposing predictions about future potential values and determining practical directions and principles and policies are the key to successful practice and an important stage for people to display their creativity and wisdom.
5. Comparison of Chinese and Western Values
Chinese values
Overview
The traditional Chinese value system refers to the theoretical and non-theoretical values that were formed and developed over more than three thousand years from the Shang Dynasty to the Western Zhou Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. They were refined by ancient Chinese thinkers and influenced the entire nation. The sum of spiritual achievements such as common spirit, psychological state, way of thinking and value orientation with a stable structure.
The Western value system mainly refers to the sum of various views, doctrines and theoretical systems that originated in ancient Greece and evolved and developed in Western Europe, North America and other regions. The Western value system has three major sources: The ancient Greek civilization represented by Socrates and Aristotle developed into the later scientific tradition; The religious idea of original sin derived from the fear of God in ancient Hebrew civilization and Judaism; It originated from the legal civilization of ancient Rome and later developed into the modern legal concept.
1. Values in Chinese traditional culture-content and characteristics
In ancient Chinese philosophy, the debates surrounding the relationship between righteousness and benefit, reason and desire, ambition and merit are closely related to the issue of value, and reflect their values in different aspects.
Confucius regarded "benevolence" as the highest value pursued in life; Mencius, Dong Zhongshu, Zhu Xi, etc. advocated values with feudal ethics and morality as the basic content; Xunzi tended to attach importance to spiritual values and did not exclude people's pursuit of material values; Chen Liang and Ye Shi advocate the values of unity of morality and utilitarianism; Mozi regards righteousness that benefits the country and the people as the highest value and serves as the basis for judging whether a certain behavior is righteous.
The core contents of traditional Chinese values include the value orientation of valuing justice over profit, emphasizing group and overall interests, and distinctive ethical characteristics.
The concept of valuing justice over profit is deeply influenced by the special economic and political structure. The feudal rulers vigorously promoted the Confucian thought of valuing justice over profit and advocating justice over profit, making it the mainstream value of society and widely recognized. Confucius proposed that "people with lofty ideals and benevolence should sacrifice their lives to achieve benevolence, and those who do not seek life to harm benevolence"; Dong Zhongshu proposed that "correcting one's friendship does not seek benefit, and knowing one's way does not seek merit", clearly distinguishing between morality and utilitarianism; Cheng Yi advocated " "Starving to death is a small matter, but losing integrity is a big matter." This ethical value, in which morality is higher than utilitarianism, enables individuals to stick to their moral bottom line in the face of material temptations and becomes a source of strength that inspires the national spirit. However, it may also lead to excessive suppression of normal material desires and neglect of the inherent connection between moral life and material life.
Chinese culture uses the concept of collectivism to promote a stable trend in society. It has certain norms and constraints on individual role setting, and encourages individuals to follow orthodox models rather than pursue unique personalities. In this context, traditional values are naturally based on the ethical relationship of filial piety and brotherhood, focusing on the solution of patriarchal ethical issues.
Summary: Chinese traditional values take valuing justice over profit, focusing on group interests, and profound ethical standards as the core content. Its formation and development are affected by various factors such as historical background, social structure, and mainstream thinking.
2. Chinese traditional cultural values - economic, social and cultural foundation
economic base
Ancient China's small-scale individual production economic structure was closely connected with the authoritarian political structure, forming a highly stable economic foundation. Its stability is reflected in its ability to effectively constrain individual behavior and make it comply with the norms and order of feudal society. In this economic environment, the survival and development of individual small farmers are highly dependent on the support and protection of their groups. Therefore, they must pay attention to maintaining relationships with group members, actively participate in group activities, and form a close social network to ensure their own economic security and social status.
social basis
In feudal society, "great unification" was regarded as an ideal political form, emphasizing the complete unity of national territory, effective centralized governance, and people's recognition of a unified regime. This concept is deeply rooted in all strata of society and has become an important criterion for measuring political legitimacy and the rise and fall of a country.
cultural basis
As the mainstream ideology of feudal society, one of the core goals of Confucianism is to maintain social harmony and stability and emphasize harmonious coexistence and coordination among groups. Although Legalists recognized individual material desires and competition, they ultimately advocated that individuals must adapt to and obey the autocratic monarchy.
limitations
Under the conditions of patriarchal system and small-scale peasant economy, it is difficult to produce values that emphasize individual freedom and all-round development. The value of an individual is more reflected in his contribution and service to the group.
positive meaning
Although individual value is subject to certain limitations, individual value can also be partially realized through group collaboration and common development. In addition, the traditional values of focusing on groups and relationships are helpful to the cohesion of national spiritual power.
western values
Overview
Socrates regarded the pursuit of goodness and virtue as consistent with true happiness. Plato believed that only the eternal world of ideas is real and valuable; only reason has absolute value and is good; the human soul is the rational part, while the body is the soul. Aristotle viewed virtue as the best state of a person's character.
Christian theology in the European Middle Ages asserted that God is an eternal, transcendent being, all-wise, all-powerful, all-good, and therefore God has the highest value and is the source of all values. After the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, bourgeois humanitarian thought embodied the bourgeois view on human value.
1. The basic content and characteristics of Western values
1. Rationalist values
Rationalism in Western values can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy, represented by Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. In modern times, with the rise of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, rationalism has been further developed and improved, and has profoundly affected the political, legal and ethical fields of Western society.
The Western capitalist economic system embodies the spirit of rationalism to a large extent. In capitalist society, instrumental rationality is widely used and highly respected. Value rationality is often ignored in modern Western society.
2. Utilitarian values
Locke advocated protecting private property rights and freedom of contract to ensure the realization of individual interests. Utilitarianism believes that the interests of society should be based on individual interests, and the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people is the standard to measure the correctness of behavior.
Adam Smith proposed in "The Wealth of Nations" that everyone's pursuit of self-interest, guided by the "invisible hand", can promote the increase of overall social welfare. In utilitarian economics, interest is regarded as a force similar to the laws of nature, driving people's economic behavior. Traditional economic theory tends to exclude moral factors from economic analysis and believes that the market mechanism itself can effectively coordinate individual interests and social interests.
3. Relativist values
Relativists believe that value is not a fixed absolute truth, but a subjective judgment closely related to the emotions and desires of individuals or groups. In relativist values, individual power and autonomy are given a high status. However, the prevalence of relativism may lead to the blurring of social value standards and the lack of objective value standards, leading to the weakening of social consensus and the emergence of moral relativism.
4. Individualism and anthropocentric values
Individualism emphasizes individual independence, autonomy and self-realization, and believes that personal interests have priority. At the same time, it does not deny the importance of cooperation and social order.
Anthropocentrism believes that humans are the core of nature, and the existence value of other living things and natural resources mainly lies in their usefulness to humans. With the acceleration of the modernization process, human beings' over-exploitation of natural resources and environmental damage have become increasingly serious, exposing the limitations of anthropocentric values. In the face of environmental crises, more and more thinkers and scholars are criticizing anthropocentrism and advocating ecological ethics and the construction of ecological civilization.
2. Western values - economic, social and cultural foundation
1. The formation of economic foundation and values
1. The influence of industrial and commercial economy on Western values
2. Economic activities and social structure of ancient Greece
3. Capitalist production relations and the pursuit of personal interests
2. The evolution of social foundations and values
1. Social changes and value transformations in ancient Greece
2. The Renaissance and the value principles of personal happiness and happiness
3. The formation of scientific spirit and utilitarian values
4. Extreme manifestations and constraints of individualism in modern Western society
3. Expression of cultural foundation and values
1. The value orientation of valuing profits over righteousness and Western culture
2. Theoretical basis of fastism and egoism
3. Bentham and Mill’s utilitarian values
4. The relationship between personal interests and social morality
7. Philosophy
philosophy and art
philosophy and science
philosophy and language
6. Chinese Philosophy
Origin and development of thought
major philosophical schools
5. Overview of Western Philosophy
Brief description
Western philosophy is the basic form and main source of philosophy. Emphasize rationality and criticism, and value logical reasoning and empirical verification. From the perspective of historical logic, the evolution of Western philosophy can be roughly divided into: ancient philosophy, medieval philosophy, modern philosophy, and modern and contemporary philosophy according to the order of natural time. From the perspective of theoretical logic, Western philosophy has experienced three major changes in its research focus: ancient philosophy took ontology as its object, modern philosophy took epistemology as its object, and modern philosophy took the philosophy of language as its object.
The historical logic of Western philosophy
ancient philosophy
Early Greek philosophy occurred from the beginning of the 6th century BC to the middle and late 5th century BC. It was the early stage of the entire Greek classical civilization and the foundation of all Greek philosophy. Leisure and knowledge-seeking are the necessary social conditions and motivations for the emergence of Greek philosophy.
The distinctive feature of early Greek philosophy is that philosophy and scientific thought are integrated, and the origins of philosophy and scientific thought are closely related and almost synchronous. During this period, the earliest Milesians, and later the Pythagoreans, Heracliteans, Eleatics, and atomists, were generally called natural philosophers or cosmologists.
By the 5th century BC, the interest of ancient Greek philosophy shifted from the study of nature to the study of human beings, as was the case with Protagoras, Gorgias, and Socrates, the main representatives of wise men.
In the 4th century BC, ancient Greek philosophy entered a systematic period, represented by Plato and Aristotle. During the approximately eight hundred years after Aristotle's death, Greek culture gradually merged with Roman culture, and pure Greek philosophy gradually became a thing of the past. The main philosophical schools include Epicurus, Stoicism and skepticism represented by Pyrrho
The ethical thoughts of Epicureans and Stoics were forerunners of the Socrates, and skepticism originated from the thinking of the Sophists. The dispute between the three schools on ethical issues gave rise to Cicero's eclecticism. From about 100 BC, the interest of Roman philosophy shifted from ethics to religion. Neo-Pythagoreans and Neo-Platonists were both philosophical sects with strong religious overtones, and the "Catholic Philosophy" represented by Augustine It is a thorough religious philosophy
medieval philosophy
The main philosophical issues in the Middle Ages were the relationship between God and man, the other world and the secular world. The patristic philosophy represented by Augustine belongs to ancient times in terms of time, but in terms of its ideology, it belongs to the Middle Ages. It is the original form of Christian philosophy.
Later medieval philosophy was divided into three periods: In the early days of medieval philosophy, Neoplatonism was more dominant than Christianity. The main representatives were Boethius and Eriugena; The second period of medieval philosophy from the 11th to the early 14th century, that is, the heyday of scholastic philosophy, focused on the debate between nominalism and realism. This was caused by the emphasis on universal concepts and emphasis on individual concepts between Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greek philosophy. By the 13th century, the influence of Aristotle's philosophy had grown greatly, and the church gradually turned to aspects of Aristotle's philosophy that were consistent with doctrine. So Aristotle's philosophy, transformed by Christian teachings, became the official philosophy, and Aquinas was the highest authority on this official philosophy; The period from the early 14th century to the mid-15th century was the end of medieval philosophy. Due to the decline of the Roman Church, the development of natural science, and the gradual recognition of the original emphasis on empirical facts in Aristotle's philosophy, philosophy gradually separated from theology. Nominalism combined with mysticalism became popular again, and the idea of individual freedom began to gain ground. Representative figures of nominalism in this period were Roger Bacon and Ockham, and Eckhart, a representative figure of mysticism.
modern philosophy
The "Renaissance" period from the 15th to the 16th century was a transitional period from the Middle Ages to modern times and an era of self-awakening. Nature and Man was the central topic studied by the ideological circles at that time. It was in the process of this study that humanism and natural philosophy were formed as two interconnected but somewhat different trends of thought. The main representatives of humanism include Platonic Plesso, Besariyan, Ficino and Aristotelian Pomponazzi. The main representatives of natural philosophy include Nicholas of Cusa, Telechot and Bruno.
From the 17th to the end of the 18th century, capitalism developed further, and categorical research appeared in natural science. The real world became an object that could be grasped by humans. Philosophical interests focused on the relationship between the subject and the object, especially the unity of the two. The subject The principle of sex has become the dominant principle of modern philosophy. The methods of modern science began with Galileo, who also provided research methods for modern philosophy. Galileo's method was characterized by induction and mathematical deduction based on observation and experiment. The differences between these two methods, induction and mathematical deduction, are manifested in the dispute between empiricism and rationalism in philosophical epistemology. Representatives of empiricism are Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Barclay and Hume. Representative figures of rationalism are Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz and Wolff.
Starting from Kant's philosophy at the end of the 18th century, modern philosophy entered its third phase. The historical dialectics of the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century and the achievements of natural science in various aspects from the end of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century promoted the development of modern Western philosophy to its highest stage. To varying degrees and in different ways, German idealist philosophers used dialectics to summarize the thoughts of their predecessors, especially the debate between rationalism and empiricism, and founded the idealist philosophy of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. German classical idealism represented
modern and contemporary philosophy
Since the mid-19th century, Western philosophy has entered a period of development of modern and contemporary philosophy. During this period, European capitalism further developed, and large-scale industrial production further promoted the tremendous development of natural science and material civilization. Facing new contradictions in society and new developments in natural science, people urgently need new theoretical explanations and new philosophical generalizations.
From the 1840s to the end of the 19th century, philosophical schools such as voluntarism, philosophy of life, positivism, Machism, neo-Kantianism, and neo-Hegelianism emerged. From the end of the 19th century to World War II, the main philosophical schools popular in the West were neorealism, pragmatism, personalism, logical atomism, logical positivism, phenomenology and existentialism.
After World War II, various branches of analytic philosophy were popular in the British and American countries, such as logical positivism, logical pragmatism, historical sociology, ordinary language philosophy, and philosophy of science. However, in continental European countries, the main popular ones were phenomenology, existentialism, etc. doctrine, neo-Thomism, hermeneutics, structuralism, postmodernism, etc.
Although there are many factions in modern and contemporary Western philosophy, it can generally be divided into two major trends: scientism and humanism.
Theoretical Logic of Western Philosophy
The rise of ancient practical philosophy
Ontological thinking in ancient philosophy
The so-called ontological philosophy refers to the most important philosophical form established by the ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle and throughout the entire traditional Western philosophy. It takes "entity" as its core and is a "pure principle embodiment" formed through the logical deduction of a series of abstract categories to explain why existence exists. Transcendence and substantiality are its basic characteristics. In the view of ancient philosophers, the things that serve as the foundation cannot be intangible and illusory, otherwise the world would be unreliable and unreal. Therefore, in ancient Greek philosophy, the concept of "entity" played an important role, and eventually formed a powerful "entification" tradition in the history of Western philosophy. Philosophers always try to find some kind of entity in all phenomena. Called the entity hidden behind.
With the philosophy of Socrates as the boundary, Greco-Roman philosophy has undergone a huge turn. Protagoras' proposition that "man is the measure of all things" indicates that Greek philosophy has begun to realize that people themselves and things related to people are in philosophy. importance in scope. The proposition that "man is the measure of all things" indicates that Greek philosophy began to realize the importance of man himself and things related to him in the scope of philosophy. Realize the transformation from ontological metaphysics and natural philosophy of narrow cosmology as the center to equal emphasis on ethics, political philosophy, metaphysics, and natural philosophy, referred to as the ethical turn
Considering that metaphysics and natural philosophy belong to Aristotle’s so-called theoretical philosophy, while ethics and political philosophy belong to his so-called practical philosophy, this shift can also be called: from theoretic-centered to theoretical philosophy and practice Philosophy pays equal attention to transformation.
Since Socrates, most philosophers' ethical views believe that people should pay attention to the cultivation of virtue; the purpose of moral cultivation is the perfection of human nature and the happiness of life; true happiness is not sensory enjoyment but spiritual pleasure; morality and happiness are consistent; justice requires everyone to get what they deserve; people should temper their desires and control their passions; people should pursue a noble realm of life in the world. Most of the topics in political philosophy believe that: the state is formed by the people for one or more purposes; the state is responsible for protecting the common interests of the people; the government can be divided into three categories: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy; the state Members can be divided into multiple classes or classes; people of different classes or strata enjoy different political rights and even different personality status; politicians should be wise and fair
The prosperity of modern knowledge
1. The epistemological form of modern philosophy—Bacon, Descartes
In the later stages of the development of ancient Greek philosophy, people already had the beginnings of self-awareness. With the deepening of rational thinking, people can distinguish between essence and phenomenon, sensibility and rationality, so that the principles contained in early ancient Greek philosophy have been rationally promoted and demonstrated. This not only finally established philosophy as a specialized science, but also enabled people to gradually deepen their understanding of themselves in the inevitable connection between thinking and existence, and gave rise to a subjective philosophical tendency that takes human rational reflection as its theoretical purpose. It is under such a theoretical premise that modern philosophy began its epistemological turn.
The core of humanistic thought is to use human nature to oppose emotions, and use human rights to oppose divine power. They opposed medieval theology's view of exalting God and belittling human beings, affirmed human value, emphasized the value of human beings, and boldly and passionately pursued the happiness and joy of human real life; they opposed medieval obscurantism, respected human experience and rationality, and advocated understanding Nature, benefiting life, advocating the comprehensive and free development of human beings; emphasizing that human dignity and value lie in the human being itself, advocating individual liberation, promoting human free will, and requiring the improvement of human independent status.
With the development of the capitalist mode of production, the consciousness of subjectivity in modern times has become increasingly strong, and two major philosophical factions have emerged: British empiricism represented by Bacon, Locke, and Hobbes, and continental rationalism represented by Descartes. Bounded by the philosophy of Bacon and Descartes, modern Western philosophy has undergone a huge turn, which is also the second major turn of Western philosophy. That is, the shift from metaphysics as the center to epistemology beyond metaphysics, referred to as the epistemological turn. Bacon was the first representative of modern materialist empiricism. He was the first to propose that the thinking subject should actively intervene in nature to make it serve mankind. It laid a certain foundation for the requirements and ideological trends of unifying thinking and existence, subject and object in modern philosophy.
Starting from Bacon and Descartes, the discussion of knowledge has occupied an important position, even the only dominant position, in the theoretical systems of most modern philosophers. The two major factions in modern Western philosophy, empiricism and rationalism, are named after the two ideological trends in epistemology regarding the origin, limits and standards of knowledge.
2. The epistemological form of modern philosophy—Kant, Hegel, Feuerbach
The main epistemological issues that modern philosophers are concerned about include: the origin of cognition, the scope or limit of cognition, the categories or levels of cognition, the standard of cognition truth, the ability to cognize, the way of cognition, the process of cognition, the laws of cognition, various cognition The relationship between cognitive elements (feeling, reason, intuition), the relationship between various types of knowledge (perceptual, rational, intuitive knowledge), etc. They can be roughly divided into two schools: empiricism and rationalism
The first problem Kant faced was the issue of epistemology. He inherited and developed the theory of knowledge in the history of Western philosophy. The three-part division of cognitive process consists of the three links of "perceptual", "intellectual" and "rational", which constitute his entire epistemological system. His "Three Critiques" answered four questions: "What is man?" "What can man know?" "What man should do" and "What man should hope for." It extends the rational authority of man, demonstrates man's subjective role, weakens the power of God, and establishes man's dominant position in nature and social life.
Hegel inherited and developed Fichte's and Schelling's thoughts on the combination of positive and negative, and expanded the highest unity of "absolute spirit" into three major stages: logic, nature, and spirit, that is, from thinking to existence, and from subject to subject. The process of reaching the object and then reaching the unity of the two completes the idealist theory of the identity of thinking and existence, subject and object. Based on his philosophical stance of objective idealism, Hegel defined world history as the completion of self-knowledge of the "absolute spirit", and regarded human beings as the externalization of the "absolute spirit" and the bearer of completed self-awareness. Therefore, man is determined by Hegel as the specific and direct starting point of social history.
As the last outstanding representative of German classical philosophy, Feuerbach completed the bourgeois critique of religious theology and directly restored the authority of materialism. He claimed that his philosophy was humanistic. He refuted Kant's dualistic thought and agnosticism that separated thinking and existence, subject and object, and criticized Hegel's idealism theory of the identity of thinking and existence. Starting from the belief that the soul and body are unified, he established "humanistic" materialism
The emergence of modern philosophy of language
Modern philosophy thinks in language
Bounded by the philosophy of Russell and Wittgenstein, modern philosophy has undergone a huge shift, from metaphysics and epistemology as the center to the philosophy of language and philosophy of science, referred to as the philosophy of language turn. Although this third turn mainly occurs in British and American philosophy, some European philosophers also attach great importance to language issues, such as Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, Heidegger, one of the founders of existentialism, and Hermeneutics, the most important Representative figures such as Gadamer
Moore's article "Refutation of Idealism" published in 1869 showed the common belief of the younger generation of British philosophers that they intended to break with traditional philosophy in order to get rid of the crisis of philosophy. In 1918, Russell's "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism" was published. He admitted that many of its ideas came from Wittgenstein or were influenced by him. He believes that in order to create a logically perfect ideal philosophical language, it is necessary to reconstruct a precise philosophical grammar, and such philosophical grammar can only come from a rigorous logical analysis of the facts that make up the world. He called the simplest facts atomic facts, complex facts (mainly composed of atomic facts) molecular facts, and called propositions expressing atomic facts and molecular facts atomic propositions and molecular propositions respectively.
In 1921, Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was published. He asserted that most of the questions and propositions in previous philosophy (especially metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics) were meaningless questions and propositions, because they were among the unthinkable and unspeakable, and were motivated by a lack of understanding of language logic. Puzzled or ignorant
Philosophy of language as a faction is analytic philosophy, or analytic philosophy mainly belongs to the philosophy of language in terms of disciplines. Analytical philosophy mainly includes schools such as logical positivism (also called logical empiricism, including the Vienna School, the Berlin School, and the Warsaw School) and everyday language analysis (including the Cambridge School and the Oxford School).
The main topics in the philosophy of language that modern philosophers focus on include: the nature, principles, types, structures, and functions of language; the relationship between language, thinking, and logic; the relationship between language symbols, objects, and interpreters; the meaning of propositions and their relationship to truth. relationship; the relationship between metalanguage and object language; speech acts, private language, etc.
major traditions of western philosophy
In the historical evolution of Western philosophy, we can see that several major traditions of philosophy have been formed in the West: speculative metaphysics (including skeptical thinking), rational scientific method (and logosm), religious humanities Caring, strong social awareness and critical spirit, rational practical wisdom and practical reason
1. Speculative metaphysics
2. Rational scientific method
3. Religious humanistic care
4. Strong social awareness and critical spirit
5. Rational practical wisdom and practical reason
4. Content
Overview
In the process of the development of a knowledge system, the more mature parts with special content and nature will become independent and become new neighborhoods. This new research field can be called a branch of the original knowledge system. Generally speaking, there is a subordinate relationship between the newly generated subfields and the original knowledge system in terms of scientific classification. In traditional philosophy, logic, ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy are usually regarded as the main branches of philosophy. Some scholars also believe that natural philosophy, spiritual philosophy, historical philosophy, etc. are important branches of philosophy.
Logic
1. The Origin and Development of Logic
Logic has gone through three stages of development: ancient times, modern times and modern times. There are three sources: the formal logic of ancient Greece, represented by Aristotle's "On Instruments"; the Ming Dynasty of China's pre-Qin period, represented by the "Mo Jing" of the Mohist school; the ancient Indian Ming Dynasty, represented by "The Righteous Sutra" is the representative.
Classification of Logic
According to categories, logic is divided into dialectical logic, formal logic and mathematical logic. Formal logic is also called ordinary logic, and mathematical logic is also called modern formal logic.
The place of logic in philosophy
Ethics
Definition of ethics: understanding of the proper nature of social relations, focusing on social behavioral norms and emphasizing objective aspects Ethics is the knowledge about human beings themselves and the norms of behavior between people and society.
How should we act? What action is good or right?
1. Development of Ethics
1. The development stage of Chinese theory
Due to the differences in social systems and cultural backgrounds, the formation of Chinese and Western ethical thoughts is deeply influenced by their respective unique social structures and cultural traditions. In the process of development, Western ethics has experienced multiple development paths from classical philosophy, medieval Christian ethics, to moral relativism and utilitarianism in the modern Enlightenment period. Although there are many internal schools of Chinese ethics, it generally revolves around Confucian ethics and gradually absorbs ideas such as Taoism and Legalism, forming a relatively coherent development line.
Chinese ethical thought has gone through four main stages of development
The pre-Qin period, the Qin and Han dynasties to the Ming and Qing dynasties, the late Qing dynasty to the May 4th Movement period, and contemporary China
1. In the pre-Qin period, it began to take shape
Confucianism emphasizes personal cultivation and social harmony
Taoism emphasizes following nature
Legalism advocates governing the country by law
Mohists believe that moral behavior should be in the interests of the greatest number of people
2. From the Qin and Han Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, it was gradually completed
Dong Zhongshu proposed the "Three Cardinal Guidelines and Five Constant Rules"
Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism achieved integration during this period
Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism believes that "reason" is the fundamental principle of all things in the universe, emphasizing "preserving heaven's principles and destroying human desires"
Lu Wang Xinxue advocates achieving moral consciousness through inner reflection
3. From the late Qing Dynasty to the May 4th Movement, a mixture of Chinese and Western
That is to say, he criticized the feudal dross in traditional ethics and actively absorbed Western concepts of freedom, equality, and human rights.
4. In contemporary China, the development of ethics has experienced restoration and innovation, and Marxist ethics.
The development of Chinese ethical thought is a dynamic, continuous process of integration and innovation. It not only profoundly reflects the historical changes in Chinese society, but also provides rich ideological resources for solving ethical issues in contemporary society.
2. The development stage of Western ethics
1. Slavery period in ancient Greece and Rome
Pythagoras introduced the harmony of mathematics into moral philosophy, believing that the order of the universe is based on "number", and justice means harmony with the order of the universe.
Heraclitus's "all things change", good and evil are not fixed opposites, but are in a dynamic mutual transformation.
Protagoras' proposition that "man is the measure of all things" marks the bud of the theoretical view of individualism.
Plato believed that true knowledge and morality come from the understanding of the ideal world. Through philosophical training, the soul can rise from the material world to the ideal world and achieve moral perfection.
Aristotle proposed the concept of "practical wisdom" in "Nicomachean Ethics", emphasizing that moral judgment needs to combine ideals and practice.
Epicurus advocated the pursuit of personal inner peace and happiness, emphasizing the removal of fear of death and pain; while the Stoics advocated achieving peace of mind through self-control and acceptance of fate, both of which have great influence on the moral psychology and happiness of later generations. has an important influence on
2. Medieval Feudal Period
Christian ethics dominated this period and became the axis of European moral life. Christianity emphasizes love for God and love for others, and advocates abstinence and self-sacrifice as the path to eternal salvation. Aquinas: wisdom, courage, temperance, justice, faith, hope, love
3. Modern capitalism period
Humanist period: Humanists advocated a return to classical culture and emphasized personal value and freedom, which had a direct moral inspiration for later German Enlightenment thought.
Utilitarianism: Bentham's "greatest happiness principle" attempts to provide an actionable standard for moral decision-making. Kant's moral philosophy proposed the "moral law" and emphasized the self-discipline and rational basis of moral behavior.
4. Modern capitalism period
Irrational ethics: Nietzsche’s Superman philosophy challenges traditional moral concepts, emphasizes willpower and the realization of personal values, and puts forward the slogan of “revaluation of all values”
Formalist ethics: Moore’s intuitionism believes that good is indefinable, and we recognize the nature of good directly through intuition.
Applied ethics: With the development of science and technology and society, fields such as science and technology ethics, environmental ethics, and business ethics have emerged.
Religious ethics: Neo-Thomism and other attempts to reconcile religious tradition and modern scientific rationality, and explore the role and significance of religious ethics in contemporary society
Summarize
The development of Western ethics, from ancient times to the present, is not only the accumulation of various theories, but also a chronicle of social and cultural changes. Thinkers of each era have given their own answers to fundamental questions such as "what is good" and "how to live" in their specific social context. These thoughts not only promote the progress of human moral cognition, but also provide rich ideological resources for solving contemporary moral dilemmas.
book list
Classical ethics: Moore's "Principles of Ethics", Kant's "Critique of Practical Reason", Bentham's "Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation"
Contemporary ethics: Nietzsche's "On the Genealogy of Morals", Russell's "Human Society in Ethics and Politics", Bergson's "The Two Sources of Morality and Religion"
Others: Adam Smith's "The Theory of Moral Sentiments", Sartre's "Being and Nothingness", Schopenhauer's "On Life", Mill's "Utilitarianism"
2. Main concepts of ethics
good and evil
From a metaethical perspective, the concepts of good and evil are regarded as the essence of value judgments. Moral relativism exhibits internal diversity; Absolutism emphasizes the universality and immutability of moral truth.
Justifiable
Moral reasoning models: Discussions of legitimacy can draw on various moral reasoning models; Justification and moral intuition: When humans make moral judgments, they often rely on quick and intuitive moral intuitions.
justice (justice)
In ethics, justice often revolves around topics such as fairness, equality, respect for human rights, due process, and the correction of injustice. Global justice: In the context of globalization, the concept of justice has expanded to the international level, exploring cross-border distributive justice, human rights protection, environmental protection and other issues; Intergenerational justice: Justice also involves intergenerational considerations, that is, how current actions and policies affect the well-being of future generations.
values and facts
The distinction between values and facts is the basis of normative ethics and descriptive ethics. Normative ethics focuses on what "should" be done, while descriptive ethics studies how humans actually make moral judgments. Moral naturalism: As an attempt to solve the problem of "is" and "ought", it claims that moral properties can be reduced to natural properties.
Hume proposed that "ought" cannot be logically derived from "is". "Is" is a descriptive statement and "ought" is a normative statement. This is known as "Hume's gap"
happiness
Happiness economics, psychology, and interdisciplinary research attempt to quantify happiness, explore various factors that affect happiness, and evaluate the role of different policies and social practices in improving happiness. Aristotle believed that happiness lies in practicing virtue and realizing human potential. Modern happiness research pays more attention to subjective happiness, life satisfaction and the concepts of positive psychology.
conscience
Moral Conflicts and Resolution of Conscience: When faced with complex moral decisions, individuals may face conflicts in their conscience. Methods of resolving conflicts of conscience include applying moral principles, appealing to higher moral values, engaging in ethical dialogue and reflection.
Conscientious Objection: Under certain circumstances, an individual may conscientiously refuse to perform certain tasks or orders. The phenomenon sparks in-depth discussions about personal power, social responsibility, and the tension between law and ethics
Education and conflict of conscience: The formation of conscience is not only the result of the individual's inner development, but also affected by family education, social environment and cultural traditions. In addition, conscience may conflict with other moral obligations or personal interests, causing people to fall into ethical "conscience dilemmas"
obligation
Sources and conflicts of obligations: In-depth analysis of the sources of obligations can be divided into legal obligations, contractual obligations, moral obligations, etc. Conflicts of obligations are common problems in ethics, and resolving such conflicts requires complex moral reasoning and value trade-offs.
3. Classification of Ethics Forms
descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics is based on specific historical materials, describing and studying the actual moral relationships, moral norms, moral concepts, moral structures, moral traditions, social disciplines, etc. in various societies, ethnic groups, and class social groups, and conducting social academic and historical analysis.
1. Moral relationships and norms
The focus is on actual moral relationships, such as responsibilities and obligations between family members, loyalty and trust among friends, and mutual aid and respect among members of the broader society.
2. Moral concepts and structures
Explore how moral concepts shared by social groups form and evolve
3. Morals and traditions
Study the moral customs and traditions of a specific society or nation, such as moral expressions in festival celebrations, moral enlightenment in religious ceremonies, etc.
4. Social discipline
Pay attention to how society maintains moral order through laws, customs, public opinion, etc.
5. Education and Application
Provide empirical basis and strategic suggestions for moral education
normative ethics
Normative ethics takes people's actual moral relationships, moral consciousness and moral activities as its research objects, and explores and analyzes human mission, the meaning of life, ideal personality, social value standards and specific obligations from the perspective of a philosophical world view Requirements and other issues, focusing on the theoretical argument and practical application of moral principles and norms.
1. Research objects and scope
Research objects include people's moral relationships, moral awareness and moral activities. This means that it not only focuses on the moral norms followed by how individuals interact in society. It also explores people's subjective understanding of good and evil, right and wrong (moral consciousness) and how these understandings are translated into practical actions.
2. Perspective of the philosophical world
Explore fundamental issues such as human mission, meaning of life and ideal personality
3. Value standards and obligation requirements
Try to establish standards of social value and clarify specific obligation requirements. It not only deals with universal moral principles, but also explores how these principles are applied in specific situations.
4. Value analysis and normative science
Analyze the value judgments of what is good and construct normative paths to realize these values
metaethics
Metaethics focuses on exploring the nature of moral language, the meaning of moral judgments, and the possibilities and structures of moral reasoning. It does not directly focus on which actions are good or evil (this belongs to the category of normative ethics) nor does it involve specific moral practice issues (such as what applied ethics deals with), but goes deep into the underlying logic of moral language and concepts Go with the structure.
1. The meaning of moral language
Metaethicists explore whether moral words such as "right," "wrong," and "ought" have substantive meaning and how these words express moral judgments
2. The nature of moral judgment
This area explores whether moral judgments are descriptive (describing facts) or normative (expressing commands or recommendations).
3. Moral realism and anti-realism
Moral realism asserts that moral facts and properties exist independently of human beliefs and emotions; anti-realism denies this and holds that moral properties are the product of subjective constructions or linguistic expressions
applied ethics
Applied ethics mainly studies and solves ethical and moral problems in real life, so that ethics and morality can better play their role. In terms of research objects, it focuses on the specific application of normative ethics theory in moral life; in terms of research tasks, it guides the specific practice of human moral life; in terms of research methods, it mainly focuses on empirical, descriptive and puzzle methods, focusing on the role of ethics and morality. perform effectively
Family virtues, professional ethics, social ethics, administrative ethics, economic ethics, environmental theory, bioethics, science and technology ethics
1. Family virtues
It is the code of conduct that every citizen should follow in family life, it is the moral principle and norm that adjusts the relationship between family members, and it serves to maintain a certain family system.
Respect the elderly and love the young, live in harmony with husband and wife, be diligent and thrifty in running the household, and unite neighbors
2. Professional ethics
It is the moral code that practitioners should follow and the moral character that they must possess in their professional activities.
Dedicated to work, honest and trustworthy, thoughtful and dedicated to society
3. Social ethics
It is a code of moral conduct that people should follow when performing social obligations or activities involving social and public interests.
Be polite, polite, helpful, law-abiding, and environmentally friendly
4. Administrative ethics
It is an ethical code of ethics that public servants should abide by when exercising their powers and performing their duties. It is an applied ethics that takes administrative ethics issues, administrative ethics principles and norms, and administrative ethics construction countermeasures and measures as its research objects.
Serve the people, be conscientious, honest, fair, pragmatic and efficient
5. Economic Ethics
It is a discipline that studies the ethical rationality of economic systems, economic policies, economic decisions, and economic behaviors, and studies the ethical norms of organizations and individuals in economic activities.
6. Environmental Ethics
It refers to the moral responsibilities that people should bear towards the natural environment, or the codes of conduct and norms that people should abide by when treating the natural environment.
Protect animals, plants and the natural environment, respect the diversity of nature, and rationally utilize resources
7. Bioethics
is the systematic study of human behavior in the context of the life sciences and health care based on ethical values and principles
8. Science and Technology Ethics
It is a discipline that studies ethical issues in scientific and technological activities, as well as a series of theoretical and practical issues in scientific and technological ethics.
For the benefit of mankind and to devote oneself to the truth
Since ethics is an extremely complex social phenomenon, ethicists start from different world views and methodologies, and adopt different scopes and perspectives. The research objects of ethics are very different, and the divisions of ethics are also very different.
book list
"Research on Frontier Issues in Applied Ethics" "History of Modern Western Ethics"
4. The status of ethics in philosophy
In the vast knowledge system of philosophy, ethics focuses on the study of moral principles, value judgments and behavioral norms, trying to answer questions such as "how should we act" and "what actions are good or correct". In the history of Western philosophy, ethics is usually regarded as one of the three main branches of philosophy, alongside metaphysics and logic. In modern academic classification, ethics is clearly classified as a first- or second-level discipline under the category of philosophy.
The discussion of ethics is deeply rooted in other branches of philosophy. It not only benefits from the basic discussion categories of philosophy, but also feeds back into philosophy, deepening the understanding of human behavior and social interaction.
The practical significance of applied ethics is that it is directly related to moral decision-making and practice in real life, providing a theoretical framework and guiding principles for solving practical moral dilemmas.
Summarize
Ethics occupies a core position in the field of philosophy and is an important part of philosophy's exploration of human nature, values and behavioral norms. As a key branch of philosophy, ethics not only benefits from the basic theories of philosophy such as metaphysics, ontology, epistemology, logic, and philosophy of language, but also enriches the connotation of philosophy and promotes fundamental understandings of morality, good and evil, and justice. An in-depth discussion of the issue. The close connection between ethics and other areas of philosophy demonstrates the mutual support and promotion within the knowledge system.
philosophy of science
1. Science and Philosophy
1. The historical origins of science and philosophy
The historical origins of science and philosophy can be traced back to ancient civilizations, when the two were not strictly distinguished and philosophers were also explorers of natural sciences.
Ancient Greece is a great example of the intersection of science and philosophy. Thales's theory of water origin marked the beginning of natural philosophy; Aristotle's systematic discussion of physics, biology, and logic provided a framework for subsequent scientific research methods.
The ancient Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations' achievements in astronomy and mathematics, such as specifying calendars and calculating geometric areas, reflected early mankind's exploration of the laws of nature.
During the European Middle Ages, Aquinas tried to integrate Aristotle's philosophy with Christian teachings. Although this restricted the freedom of scientific exploration to a certain extent, it also paved the way for the subsequent Renaissance and Scientific Revolution.
During the Renaissance, Copernicus' heliocentric theory, Galileo's experimental methods, Descartes' rationalism, etc., gradually separated science from philosophy and became an independent discipline.
In the Age of Enlightenment, Kant’s concept of “a priori comprehensive judgment” provided a philosophical foundation for the development of scientific philosophy.
Science and philosophy are intertwined in their origins. Philosophy provides science with the initial thinking framework and methodological basis. The development of science continues to push philosophy to think about the limits of knowledge, the legitimacy of methods, and the relationship between science and human society.
2. Definition of scientific philosophy
Philosophy of science is a basic philosophical discipline that explores the nature of scientific knowledge, scientific methodology, the structure and evolution of scientific theories, and scientific practice.
Main focus and discussion: the nature of science, the structure of scientific theories, scientific explanations, scientific testing and verification, the relationship between scientific observations and theories, the choice of scientific theories, the relationship between science and reality, scientific logic and methodology
Philosophy of science plays a key role in defining what is science and what is pseudoscience. It not only has a profound impact on scientific theory and practice itself, but also is of great significance to the interaction between science and society, the dissemination and acceptance of scientific knowledge, and the formation of scientific culture.
3. The role of scientific philosophy in modern science
It is not only a reflection on scientific activities themselves, but also provides profound insights into the development direction, methodology, theoretical construction, and the interaction between science and society.
1. The logical structure and reality of scientific theories
Philosophy of science deeply explores the structure and content of scientific theories, including theoretical entities, as well as the reality of theoretical concepts.
2. Scientific explanation and prediction
Explore how science explains natural phenomena and makes effective predictions
3. Debate between scientific realism and anti-realism
Realism advocates that the entities and laws described by scientific theories exist in objective reality; Anti-realism questions the direct correspondence between scientific theory and reality
4. The intertwining of science and values
Paying attention to the value orientation and ethical issues of scientific activities, the philosophy of science provides an ethical framework and tools for critical thinking when discussing in-depth the relationship between scientific progress, human well-being, fairness and justice.
book list
"The Oxford General Reader: Philosophy of Science" Samir Okasha
"A Technological History of World Civilization" by Arnold Pesci
2. Core Issues in the Philosophy of Science
1. The nature and boundaries of knowledge
In the field of philosophy of science, the discussion of the nature and boundaries of knowledge is not only related to how we understand the world, but also touches on the cornerstone of scientific methods and epistemology.
the nature of knowledge
Knowledge is generally considered to be a verified true belief that goes beyond simple subjective opinion or unproven hypothesis. This definition contains three core characteristics of knowledge: truth, belief, and proof.
Through transcendental analysis, Kant distinguished between innate knowledge and acquired experience, emphasizing the role of reason in constructing the embodiment of knowledge. In the 20th century, logical positivists focused on the verifiability of knowledge, arguing that it can only be verified through experience. Only propositions have meaning, thus limiting the boundaries of knowledge within the scope of empirical science.
Scientific realists firmly believe that scientific theories reveal the objective structure and real entities of nature; Anti-realists, especially those of the instrumentalist and constructivist branches, question the extent to which scientific theories correspond to reality and believe that the value of a theory mainly lies in its predictive and explanatory capabilities rather than describing an objective world independent of human cognition.
the limits of knowledge
The falsifiability criterion proposed by Karl Popper attempts to delineate scientific theories from non-scientific claims. Believes that a theory is not scientific if it cannot be refuted by underlying empirical facts
Thomas Kuhn's "paradigm shift" theory challenges this, pointing out that the development of scientific knowledge is not a linear accumulation, but a leap through revolutionary paradigm changes.
There are also philosophers who completely reject any fixed standards for scientific demarcation, arguing that science should be an open process of exploration and should not be subject to rigid methodological rules. For example, Feyerabend's "Anything goes"
2. Basic principles of scientific methodology
As the core framework to guide scientific research and theory construction, scientific methodology contains a series of basic principles: induction and deduction, hypothesis-deduction method, statistical reasoning and probability theory, scientific explanation and understanding
1. Induction and deduction
Inductive reasoning, which is a method of reasoning from the specific to the general, in which scientists try to generalize general rules through the observation of many individual cases;
Deductive reasoning is the derivation of conclusions in specific situations from general principles. Deductive reasoning is indispensable in the verification of scientific theories, allowing scientists to predict unknown phenomena based on known principles.
2. Hypothesis-deduction
It is one of the core driving forces of scientific progress and consists of three key steps: proposing hypothesis, deductive prediction, and experimental verification.
3. Statistical reasoning and probability theory
Helps scientists quantify variability in data and assess how well theoretical predictions match actual observations
4. Scientific explanation and understanding
Scientific explanation requires going beyond superficial phenomena and revealing intrinsic causal connections. Carl G. Hempel's law-deduction model and Nagel's causal explanation model emphasize that a good scientific explanation should be able to show how phenomena follow the laws of nature and reveal the mechanism behind it.
3. The relationship between scientific theory and reality
Philosophy of science’s thinking on the relationship between scientific theory and reality is not only a theoretical discussion, but also a philosophical activity that has a profound impact on scientific practice. It is related to the foundation and future direction of scientific cognition.
1. Theories originate from reality and try to explain reality
Scientific theories are usually derived from observations and experiences of natural or social phenomena. Based on observed facts and data, scientists use inductive and deductive reasoning to propose theoretical models that can explain these phenomena.
2. Theory guides practice and predicts the unknown
Scientific theories not only explain known phenomena, but more importantly, they can guide further experimental design and practical activities, as well as predict phenomena that have not yet been observed.
3. Practice test theory
The authenticity or validity of scientific theories must be tested through practice, that is, through experiments, observations or practical experience, to verify whether the predictions of the theory are consistent with reality.
4. Theory revision and development
In practice, it may be discovered that the theory is inconsistent with reality, and the theory needs to be revised or expanded to adapt to the newly discovered facts. This interaction between theory and practice promotes the progress of science
5. Abstraction of theory and complexity of reality
Scientific theories are often highly abstract and simplified versions of reality. The real world is often much more complex than theoretical models, containing a large number of variables and uncertainties.
6. Limitations of the theory
Every scientific theory has its scope of application and may no longer be valid beyond this scope
3. Scientific method
Scientific method is a set of systematic procedures for human beings to explore the laws of natural and social phenomena, aiming to establish a reliable knowledge system through rigorous logical and empirical research. The process from observation to theory is the core link of this method. It combines the perspectives of empiricism and rationalism, and gradually constructs scientific theories through the formulation of hypotheses, the formation of predictions, and experimental verification, combined with inductive and deductive reasoning.
1. Empiricism and rationalism
empiricism
Empiricism believes that the source of knowledge is mainly obtained through direct experience of our senses, emphasizing the construction of a knowledge system through observation, experiment and empirical induction.
Observation and Experimentation
In the early stages of scientific research, empiricists design experiments to manipulate variables, observe results, and discipline data
inductive reasoning
Empiricists rely on inductive reasoning, the process of rising from particular instances to general laws. By observing repeated phenomena many times, scientists have concluded universal rules
rationalism
Rationalism advocates rational thinking and logical reasoning as the fundamental source of knowledge. It is believed that at least part of the knowledge is a priori, which may originate from the rational structure of human beings or the internal logic of the universe.
theory building
In the scientific method, rationalism is mainly reflected in the conception and logical deduction of theories. A tendency to use mathematical and logical reasoning to construct theoretical frameworks that explain existing observations and predict new phenomena
deductive reasoning
Rationalism emphasizes deductive reasoning, the process of deriving specific conclusions from general principles
While empiricism and rationalism have historically been viewed as opposing philosophical positions, modern science often combines the best of both
2. Hypothesis, prediction and experimental verification
hypothesis
Proposing a hypothesis is the first step in exploring the unknown. It stems from careful observation and profound thinking about natural or social phenomena.
predict
The formation of predictions is based on the formulation of hypotheses, and scientists will further derive a series of predictions. These predictions are explicit statements of the results that should be observed in nature or other areas of study if the hypotheses were true. They constitute specific guidelines for testing whether a hypothesis is correct
Experimental verification
Experimental verification is a systematic observation that scientists must design and implement in order to test the validity of a hypothesis. The core of experimental design lies in controlling variables, that is, in addition to the hypothesis factors being tested, other factors that may affect the results should be kept as constant or eliminated as much as possible to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the experimental results.
3. Inductive and deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning are two basic and important forms of reasoning in logic. They play a core role in scientific exploration, philosophical thinking, and daily life, and each undertakes different tasks and functions.
inductive reasoning
It is a special to general reasoning process. Its core is to identify common characteristics by observing a large number of individual cases, thereby summarizing general rules and principles.
deductive reasoning
It is a reasoning process from the general to the specific. It is based on known general principles or laws and draws conclusions about specific situations or instances through logical deduction.
Summarize
Induction and deduction complement each other in the scientific method and jointly promote the progress of knowledge. Scientists typically first collect data through observation and experimentation (using inductive reasoning) and then propose or test a theory (deductive reasoning)
Inductive reasoning helps us build a theoretical framework, while deductive reasoning is used for the specific application and verification of theories. The combination of the two promotes the continuous improvement of scientific theories and technological innovation
4. Falsificationism and Verificationism
1. Popper’s falsificationist view
Popper opposed the inductivist position in logical empiricism, arguing that scientific theories can never be absolutely confirmed by limited observations because no matter how many positive cases there are, counterexamples that may be encountered in the future cannot be ruled out.
1. The nature of scientific theories: falsifiability
For a theory to be considered scientific, it must be falsifiable. This means that the theory must be able to specify the conditions under which a particular observation or experimental result would make the theory false.
2. The growth of scientific knowledge: trial and error and critical rationalism
Scientific progress is achieved not by accumulating confirmed cases but by boldly formulating hypotheses and then working hard to find errors in those hypotheses. Once a theory is falsified, scientists will come up with new and more exciting theories to replace the old ones
3. Distinguish between science and non-science
Non-scientific statements are often unfalsifiable. Science is characterized by its willingness to submit to empirical testing and, if necessary, to revise or abandon theories
4. Criticism of induction
He deeply criticized the traditional inductive logic and believed that it is logically invalid to extend special cases to universal laws.
2. Defense and limitations of verificationism
The core view of verificationism is that the meaning and authenticity of scientific theories or propositions lie in their ability to be consistent with empirical observations or to be supported by these observations. Emphasizes the empirical basis of scientific knowledge and advocates that theories are meaningful only if they can be empirically verified
defend
1. The basis of empiricism
Verificationism is based on the philosophy of empiricism, which holds that knowledge originates from sensory experience
2. The driving force of scientific progress
Scientific theories are constantly revised and improved by predicting phenomena and being verified by experiments or observations.
3. Interaction between theory and experience
Confirmationism promotes the interaction between theory and actual empirical data, emphasizing that theory should be able to explain known facts and predict new phenomena
limitations
1. Induction problem
Hume pointed out that inductive reasoning cannot logically guarantee the transition from the particular to the general
2. Incompleteness of confirmation
Even if a theory is consistent with all available observational data, this does not provide absolute proof that the theory is true
3. Challenges from falsificationism
No matter how widely proven a theory is, it only needs one counterexample to be falsified. Therefore, the progress of scientific theories depends more on its ability to withstand criticism and attempts at falsification.
4. Observation of theoretical loads
In actual scientific research, observations are often not neutral but influenced by existing theoretical frameworks.
3. Methodological disputes from a contemporary perspective
In contemporary philosophy of science, the defense of falsificationism and positivism has evolved into a more complex discussion, no longer simply an either/or between the two. It not only recognizes the role of falsification in the development of scientific theories, but also recognizes the importance of verification in building and maintaining theoretical systems.
Contemporary discussions in the philosophy of science pay more attention to the fact that the development of scientific theories is a dynamic and iterative process, in which the concepts of falsificationism and verificationism are integrated into a broader and more delicate methodological framework.
5. Realism and anti-realism
1. Scientific realism
Scientific realism advocates that scientific theories not only describe phenomena, but also reveal the nature of the objective world, even those entities and processes that cannot be intuitively perceived are no exception.
Features
1. Entity reality: beyond the boundaries of the senses
The core of scientific realism lies in the belief in the reality of entities. In modern physics, elementary particles such as electrons and quarks, as well as concepts such as the curvature of space-time proposed by general relativity, are vivid examples of this position.
2. The authenticity of the theory: verification from theory to practice
Successful scientific theories are more than just practical toolboxes; they are reflections of some true state of nature. Einstein's general theory of relativity provides a powerful example
3. The evidence base of realism: validity of theory and "no miracle argument"
The support of scientific realism comes not only from the successful prediction of specific phenomena, but also from the continuity and cumulative development between theories, as well as the logical reasoning of the "no miracle argument"
No Miracle Argument: If scientific theories do not reflect, at least in part, the true structure and laws of reality, then their ability to produce accurate results in areas not directly observed would appear miraculous, almost tantamount to a miracle.
2. Anti-realism
Anti-realists re-examine the nature and functions of scientific theories through various perspectives such as theoretical instrumentalism, constructivism and critical realism, providing us with profound insights into the generation, development and limitations of scientific knowledge.
1. Theoretical instrumentalism: a pragmatic picture of science
As the core pillar of anti-realism, theoretical instrumentalism fundamentally questions the one-to-one correspondence between scientific theories and reality. It is believed that scientific theories are more like toolboxes in the hands of engineers. Their existence value lies in their ability to effectively predict future phenomena and explain observed data.
2. Constructivism: the social and cultural context of scientific knowledge
Constructivism analyzes the formation of scientific knowledge from a completely new dimension—social and cultural background. This perspective believes that scientific theory is not simply a passive reflection of the objective world, but a product actively constructed by a group of scientists in a specific historical period, cultural atmosphere, and language framework.
3. Critical realism: limitations and pursuits of epistemology
Although critical realism is called "reality", it stands in the ranks of anti-realism. He believes that although there is an objective world independent of observers, due to the limitations of human cognitive means and theoretical frameworks, the scientific theories we construct can only approximately reflect this reality.
3. Middle ground and dynamic realism
Realism and anti-realism, the former firmly believes that scientific theories directly map objective reality, while the latter questions the validity and authenticity of this mapping. However, between these seemingly irreconcilable oppositions, a more delicate and flexible philosophical thinking has quietly emerged, trying to bridge the gap and build a bridge of communication, namely moderate realism and dynamic realism.
1. Moderate realism: cautious reality mapping theory
Adopting a moderate and rational stance, he believes that scientific theories do reflect the basic laws of nature to a certain extent, but at the same time he is clearly aware of the limitations of the theory. It not only affirms the validity of the theory at a certain stage, but also maintains vigilance against possible biases and imperfections in the theory.
2. Dynamic realism: the evolutionary journey of scientific knowledge
It further expands the boundaries of realism and regards it as a process that evolves over time. From this perspective, reality is not a fixed entity, but the product of scientific progress and theoretical innovation.
Summarize
The debate between scientific realism and anti-realism is essentially different answers to the core question of how science reveals the truth about the world.
The middle ground and dynamic realism proposed inject new blood into this debate. They try to find a balance between extremes and reflect the complexity and diversity of scientific practice and theoretical understanding.
Moderate realism reminds people that scientific theories are not only tools for human beings to understand the world, but also products limited by our cognitive limitations.
Dynamic realism emphasizes the evolution and adaptability of scientific knowledge, showing the process in which the concept of reality is constantly enriched with scientific progress.
6. Normality and revolution of scientific progress
1. Kuhn’s paradigm theory
In "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions", Kuhn first proposed the concept of "paradigm". In his view, the history of science is shaped by a series of discontinuous "revolutions". These revolutions are not only the replacement of theories, but also fundamental changes in the worldview. This transformation is precisely through the rise and replacement of "paradigms" to realize
1. Definition and connotation
A paradigm refers to a set of basic beliefs, theories, methods, conceptual systems and typical examples shared by the scientific community within a certain period of time. Provides scientists with a shared worldview, values, and framework for research problems and solutions
2. Dynamic model of scientific development
Through the introduction of paradigms, Kuhn described the nonlinear process of scientific development, which includes stages such as normal science, scientific crisis, scientific revolution, and the establishment of new paradigms.
3. Consensus and guidance
Provides a consensus basis for scientific practice, defining legitimate scientific questions, acceptable evidence, and valid research methods
4. Incommensurability
There may be incommensurability between different scientific paradigms, which means that the old and new paradigms are based on different basic assumptions and theoretical frameworks and are difficult to directly translate or compare with each other. This also explains why major conceptual changes occur during scientific revolutions.
5. Changes in knowledge and perspective
A paradigm shift not only involves a change in theoretical content, but also a fundamental change in the way we view the world, affecting the way scientists think and design experiments.
2. Stage characteristics of scientific development
Kuhn creatively depicted the stage characteristics of scientific progress, revealing the dynamic cycle from chaos to order, from stability to change.
1. Pre-paradigm science: the beginning of chaos in exploration
Characterized by theoretical diversity and methodological confusion, and the lack of a unifying theoretical framework to integrate these scattered efforts
2. Normal science: steady progress under the paradigm
The scientific community conducts research around established paradigms and is committed to solving specific problems that arise within the framework of the paradigm. Normal science is cumulative, in which knowledge grows steadily, technical methods are refined, and scientific research assumes an orderly and predictable trend.
3. Scientific revolution: drastic changes in concepts and paradigm changes
Science is no longer just the accumulation of knowledge, but a drastic change in concepts, a critical moment for paradigm shift. Scientists began to question established theoretical foundations and explore new explanatory frameworks.
4. New normal science: reborn in change
Scientific exploration at this stage is to continue to move forward from a higher starting point, and the accumulation of knowledge and the deepening of theory proceed simultaneously.
slogan
There is both the confusion of exploration and the steadiness of accumulation. There is more revolutionary excitement and the joy of rebirth
3. Triggers and consequences of scientific revolution
Trigger
1. Abnormal accumulation
As unsolved mysteries accumulate, the scientific community gradually realizes that existing theories may have reached the limits of their explanatory power.
2. The crisis of theory
When anomalies reach a critical point, scientists are no longer satisfied with tinkering with old theories, but are eager to seek new theoretical frameworks that can comprehensively cover new phenomena.
3. Proposition of innovation theory
Not only can these new theories more accurately and comprehensively explain observed phenomena, they often herald entirely new research horizons.
consequences
1. Change of world view
The acceptance of new theories is not only an update of knowledge, but also a leap in the understanding of the basic laws of nature.
2. Reorganization of knowledge structure
Some old theories and concepts were abandoned or reinterpreted, and new classifications and theoretical models were constructed.
3. Innovation in research methods
Every scientific revolution is accompanied by great progress in research methods and technology
4. Split and reorganization of the scientific community
The scientific community can reunite under a new theoretical consensus, forming a more solid academic foundation and paving the way for the next wave of scientific progress.
7. Contemporary challenges in the philosophy of science
1. New problems brought about by technological development
The rapid progress of science and technology has not only greatly enriched our material and spiritual world, but also raised new topics and challenges for scientific philosophy.
1. Artificial intelligence and cognitive science: blurring and reshaping of theoretical boundaries
2. Big data and knowledge verification: cognitive dilemmas in the information age
3. Fundamentals of quantum computing and physics: challenging the limits of classical cognition
New issues in the development of science and technology are not only technical challenges, but also profound tests of human self-understanding, ethics, and philosophical foundations. Faced with these challenges, the philosophy of science needs interdisciplinary cooperation to integrate wisdom from multiple fields such as ethics, law, and cognitive science to jointly build a future picture that not only promotes scientific and technological progress but also safeguards human values.
2. Postmodernism’s criticism of science
Postmodernism challenges the inherent authority and objectivity of science and initiates a rethinking of the nature of scientific knowledge
1. Relativist stance: the social construction of knowledge
Emphasizing the socially constructed nature of knowledge means that scientific truth is not a direct reflection of nature, but the result of being constructed and negotiated in a specific social and cultural context.
2. Criticizing the objectivity of science: subjectivity and paradigm shift
Postmodernism's criticism of scientific objectivity is further reflected in the exposure of subjective factors in practice. Believing that scientific objectivity is an idealized pursuit, in fact scientific activities cannot escape the limitations of human subjectivity
From the perspective of postmodernism, science is no longer an ivory tower isolated from society, but is embedded in a broad social and cultural context. Its development and changes need to be examined in a broader social and historical context.
3. Future directions of interdisciplinary research and philosophy of science
Philosophy of science is gradually developing in the direction of interdisciplinary research, exploring cross-integration with neighboring fields such as natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities
1. Integrating cognitive science and philosophy of mind
By combining the latest research results of cognitive science, it promotes the intersection of philosophy and neuroscience research
2. Scientific and practical research
Promote the integration of philosophy of science, history of science, and sociology of science
3. Environmental ethics and science and technology ethics
In the context of increasingly prominent environmental issues such as global climate change and biodiversity loss, scientific philosophy must be combined with environmental ethics to explore how scientific and technological development can respond to ecological crises responsibly.
aesthetics
Overview
If logic is to use reason to reveal the true structure of the objective world and thinking; Ethics reveals people's reasonable behavior to achieve the highest good from the practical and volitional level; Aesthetics reveals people’s yearning and pursuit of harmony in the world from the emotional and perceptual aspects Aesthetics is the knowledge about "beauty" and art
The 18th-century German philosopher Baumgarten was the father of aesthetics. He believes that aesthetics is knowledge about how to improve people's perceptual knowledge. Hegel believed that aesthetics should be a "philosophy of art", which requires not only the study of artistic beauty, but also the study of natural beauty, because natural beauty is a reflection of the beauty of the soul, that is, the beauty of art; Chernisky believed that "beauty is life" and believed that aesthetics was the science of art. The art he mentioned was the description of everything in life that interests people or is meaningful to people.
The definition and scope of aesthetics
definition
As an academic concept, “aesthetics” originally involves feeling or perception. It was formally established as an independent branch of philosophy by the German philosopher Baumgarten. Baumgarten proposed the concept of "perceptual science" for the first time, aiming to construct a discipline that systematically studies human perceptual cognition, thereby filling the gap in perceptual cognition in the philosophical system at that time.
Aesthetics not only focuses on beauty itself, but also on the value of art. The discussion goes deep into the psychological level, trying to understand the psychological mechanisms of aesthetic perception, including emotional responses, cognitive processes, and how these processes shape our aesthetic judgments and preferences.
scope
1. Art aesthetics
Covers aesthetic principles and practices in all art forms
2. Natural aesthetics
Explore those scenes in nature that can touch people's hearts, how and why we feel beauty in these natural phenomena, and the connection between natural beauty and human emotions and the spiritual world.
3. Social aesthetics
Pay attention to the beauty in social life, including urban planning, public space design, the aesthetic attributes of social behavior, etc.
4. Design aesthetics
Focus on aesthetic principles in product design, interface design, fashion design and other fields, how to improve user experience through design, and how design affects people's aesthetic taste and social culture
5. Psychology and cognitive aesthetics
Focus on the psychological and cognitive science foundations of aesthetic experience, exploring the formation process of aesthetic perception, emotional response and aesthetic judgment
6. Cross-cultural aesthetics and historical aesthetics
Across cultural and historical boundaries, compare aesthetic concepts and standards in different cultural backgrounds, as well as the evolution of concepts of beauty over time
1. The nature of beauty and aesthetic experience
nature of beauty
The nature of beauty includes both formal harmony and It also touches on the ideas and emotions deep in the soul.
1. The harmonious beauty of classicism
Ancient Greek sculpture "The Discus Thrower"
2. Neoplatonism and the emergence of ideas
Michelangelo's sculpture "Pieta"
3. British empiricist theory of pleasure
Empiricists such as David Hume and Edmund Burke argued that beauty is directly related to sensory pleasure
"The Hayride" by John Constable
4. The unity of rationality and sensibility in German classical aesthetics
Kant believed that beauty is aimless and purposeful, and is a harmonious blend of rational and perceptual forms. Hegel proposed that art is the objectification of ideas.
Beethoven's "Moonlight Sonata" first movement
5. Criticism and truth of Russian realism
Russian realism, such as the works of Tolstoy, emphasizes that art reflects social reality "War and Peace"
Aesthetic experience
As a psychological interaction process between individuals and beautiful objects, aesthetic experience is both subjective and universal.
1. Subjectivity and individual differences
Aesthetic experience is deeply influenced by personal experience, knowledge background and emotional state
2. Universal consensus
Although aesthetic experiences are highly individual, there is universal recognition of certain forms of beauty, such as a preference for natural landscapes
3. Interaction between emotion and cognition
Aesthetic experience is not only emotional pleasure, but also the result of cognitive activities
2. Aesthetic research methods and paths
As a subject that explores beauty, art and aesthetic experience, aesthetics has a wide and profound research scope, touching both the high abstraction of philosophy and detailed observation in specific fields such as psychology and sociology.
1. The depth and breadth of interdisciplinary research
Interdisciplinary research is particularly important in contemporary aesthetics, which integrates results from multiple fields such as neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and computer science.
2. Interaction between theoretical construction and practical application
Theoretical construction aims to propose or improve the aesthetic theoretical system, while empirical research uses quantitative or qualitative research methods to test theoretical hypotheses. The two verify each other and promote the development and improvement of aesthetic theory.
book list
"A Walk in Aesthetics" Zong Baihua, "Critique of Judgment" Kant, "The Origin of Works of Art" Heidegger, "Principles of Aesthetics" Spengler, "The Way of Seeing" John Berger
3. Western Aesthetic Tradition
1. Ancient Greek and Roman aesthetics
Ancient Greek and Roman aesthetics are the cornerstone of the Western aesthetic tradition, among which Plato's ideal beauty and Aristotle's theory of imitation constitute the two major theoretical pillars.
1. Plato’s ideal beauty
Plato's philosophy holds that every concrete instance of beauty we perceive in the real world is nothing more than an incomplete manifestation of its corresponding "perfect beauty" in the ideal world.
2. Aristotle’s theory of imitation
The theory of imitation proposed by Aristotle in the Poetics emphasizes the close connection between art and reality. It is pointed out that artistic creation is an act of imitating nature and society, but it is not just a simple copy of reality, but a creative imitation that can reveal the intrinsic nature and universal laws of things. Such as Sophocles' tragedy "Oedipus Rex"
2. Renaissance aesthetics
The core spirit of Renaissance aesthetics is humanism, which emphasizes human value, individual potential and the beauty of secular life, opposes the constraints of religious dogma since the Middle Ages, and rediscovers classical culture and philosophy, especially the art and humanities of ancient Greece and Rome. doctrine thought
Leonardo da Vinci was the master of humanistic aesthetics during the Renaissance. His artistic practice and theoretical thinking fully reflected the main characteristics of aesthetics during this period.
1. Integration of art and science
Da Vinci believed deeply in the close connection between art and science, and he brought the rigorous attitude of scientific exploration into artistic creation. "The Last Supper" and "Vitruvian Man"
2. Humanistic care and individual expression
"Mona Lisa" is a model of Leonardo da Vinci's humanistic aesthetics
3. The harmonious beauty of nature
Leonardo da Vinci's works of art often demonstrate the pursuit of harmonious order in nature. Such as "The Virgin of the Rocks"
4. Mirror said
He believes that painting should truly reflect nature like a mirror, not only depicting the external form, but also revealing the inner spiritual essence.
3. Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment, which began from about the end of the 17th century to the 18th century, was an important ideological and cultural period in European history. It emphasized rationality and personal freedom, opposed feudal autocracy, religious prejudice and ignorance, and advocated science, progress and democracy.
1. Hume’s emotionalism
Hume opposed viewing beauty as a product of reason and instead emphasized the central role of emotion in aesthetic experience. In "On the Standards of Aesthetic Taste", Hume pointed out that the feeling of beauty is a direct, non-inferential experience. Everyone's perception of beauty is affected by their unique emotional tendencies, so the standards of beauty are subjective and diverse.
2. Kant’s Critique of Aesthetic Judgment
"Critique of Judgment" marks a peak of German classical philosophy. Kant proposed that aesthetic judgment is independent of cognitive judgment and focuses on the form of the object rather than its practical value or conceptual content.
Kant believed that beauty is "purposeless and purposeful", which means that the beauty of aesthetic objects lies in the harmony and completeness of their form. This form itself does not point to any external purpose, but can cause people's general pleasure.
4. German classical beauty
German classical aesthetics is an important school that emerged in German philosophy from the late 18th to the early 19th century. Philosophers during this period tried to systematically explore the nature of beauty, the function of art and aesthetic experience, raising aesthetics to the level of philosophy. Among them, Kant, Hegel, Schelling and Schopenhauer were the representative figures.
1. Kant: Transcendental Principles of Aesthetic Judgment
Kant's theory of aesthetic judgment is mainly reflected in "Critique of Judgment". As a special kind of judgment, aesthetic judgment does not belong to theoretical rationality or practical rationality, but is an independent field. It focuses on the universality and inevitability reflected by the subject in the process of experiencing beauty.
1. Non-utilitarian (qualitative provision)
Beauty does not come from the actual benefits it can bring us or meet certain specific needs.
2. Universality (quantitative provisions)
Aesthetic judgments are universal, meaning that when we think something is beautiful, we assume that all people with normal judgment should feel the same way.
3. Purposeless and purposeful (relationship)
This is a seemingly contradictory concept, which means that the form of things seems to be designed for a certain purpose, but in fact this purpose does not exist in reality, but is given by our perception process.
4. Transmissibility of common sense (modality)
The reason why aesthetic judgment can become the basis of communication is that it can be transmitted between different individuals through language, art and other forms.
2. Hegel: Historical Philosophy of Art and Absolute Spirit
In "Aesthetics", Hegel proposed a set of historical philosophy about the development of art. He believed that art is not only the creation of beautiful places, but also the self-consciousness and self-consciousness of absolute spirit (or "world spirit") in human history. externalization process of expression
1. Symbolic art stage
In this earliest stage, when the absolute spirit is still in its initial awakening state, humans try to express the idea of transcendence through crude and indirect symbols.
2. Classical art stage
Hegel believed that classical art marks the absolute spirit reaching a clear self-understanding, and that works of art can directly and perfectly express ideas, achieving the perfect unity of form and content.
3. Romantic art stage
With the further development of absolute spirituality, art has entered a period that pays more attention to the inner world and personal emotional expression. Romantic art no longer only pursues the perfection of external forms, but turns to exploring individual emotional depth, spiritual conflicts and infinite imagination.
The End of Art and the Transcendence of Absolute Spirit
Hegel predicted that as the human spirit progresses, art as a way of expressing the absolute spirit will gradually lose its importance. He believed that as mankind's understanding of truth becomes deeper and deeper, religion and philosophy will be more directly able to grasp and express the essence of absolute spirituality, and art will appear inadequate because it cannot fully capture the infinite depth of spirituality.
3. Schelling and Schopenhauer: Art and Will
Schelling's philosophy of art (essence, function and value)
1. The perfect unity of nature and spirit
The core concept of Schelling's art philosophy is "the perfect unity of nature and spirit", which transcends traditional binary opposition thinking and advocates that art is a bridge between the natural world and the human spiritual world.
2. Artistic creation
A fusion of rationality and sensibility. In the process of artistic creation, the artist is no longer a passive observer or recorder, but a creator who actively participates in the emergence of ideas.
To sum up
Schelling's philosophy of art is a profound challenge to traditional art theory. He regards art not only as the creation of beauty, but also as a metaphysical exploration.
Schopenhauer's artistic "will to live"
1. Art: Temporary relief of will
In such a pessimistic world, art provides a way to escape the oppression of the will to survive.
2. Aesthetic intuition: transcending individual boundaries
In aesthetic intuition, individuals are no longer limited by their own subjective perspective and volitional impulses, but directly communicate with the concept (or "form") of the work of art.
Schopenhauer's artistic philosophy provides a profound understanding framework, allowing us to realize that art is not only a kind of beautiful enjoyment, but also a kind of spiritual transcendence and liberation. Through its unique way, works of art allow us to temporarily jump out of the cycle of will to survive and experience a pure beauty without desires, thereby overcoming the pain of life to a certain extent.
The influence of German classical aesthetics
Kant’s non-utilitarian and universal principles inspired artists to pursue artistic creations that transcended purpose of use;
Hegel's concept of absolute spirit promotes in-depth analysis of the history of art development
Schelling and Schopenhauer's exploration of art and people's inner spiritual world provided theoretical support for later symbolism, expressionism and even modernist art.
5. Modern aesthetics
As the intersection of philosophy and art theory, modern aesthetics is not limited to theoretical discussions. It profoundly affects our understanding of art, the experience of beauty, and the reflection on the state of human existence.
1. Nietzsche: The power of art and the deepening of superhuman aesthetics
Nietzsche believed that art is the highest expression of human spiritual freedom. It not only reflects life, but more importantly, art can shape and enhance life to a realm that transcends daily trivialities.
The practical significance of Superman aesthetics: Superman aesthetics encourages individuals to pursue a creative lifestyle, advocates breaking through traditional ethical and religious frameworks through artistic creation, and achieving the liberation of personality and the maximization of life force.
2. Heidegger: Ontological aesthetics and the truth of works of art
In The Origin of the Work of Art, Heidegger developed his ontological aesthetic framework, a theory that revolutionized understanding of the work of art and its role in the human experience of existence.
1. The core concept of ontological aesthetics
The core of existential aesthetics is to regard art as a process of revealing existence, rather than just an imitation or representation of reality. He goes beyond the analysis of the form and content of beauty in traditional aesthetics, and instead focuses on how art opens up a world and allows the essence of beings to emerge. Within this framework, works of art are no longer viewed as isolated objects, but as events in the conceptual tension field of the world and the earth.
2. Truth in works of art
The "truth" Heidegger refers to is not correctness or the conformity of facts in the traditional sense, but the process of "uncovering". The truth of art is to let the true nature of existence exist in our perception through works. become manifest.
3. Phenomenological aesthetics: Dufhener’s perceptual phenomenology
Perceptual phenomenology, as the core concept of Dufhener's aesthetic theory, advocates that the perception of works of art is a multi-dimensional and all-round process. It transcends the boundaries of a single sense and touches the human psychology, emotion and even the entire existence level.
perceptual phenomenological theory
In Dufhener's view, works of art are the display of "perceptual glory". They do not just appeal to a single sense such as vision or hearing, but mobilize all senses to form a comprehensive field of perception. This perception process is comprehensive, including not only physical perception, such as color, shape, texture, etc., but also psychological and emotional resonance. The work of art therefore becomes a "perceptual coincidence". This symbol is not a simple semiotic reference, but a direct and vital expression of existence. It invites the viewer to experience the world and the deepest self through perception. authenticity
Through Dufhener's perceptual phenomenological perspective, we can understand how works of art promote deep communication between the audience and the work through multi-sensory and whole-body experience, thereby achieving profound insights into the state of existence.
Summarize
Modern aesthetics delves into the complex relationship between art and human existence. Nietzsche emphasized art as a power to strengthen and transcend life, and the liberation of individual creativity in the idea of the Superman; Heidegger focuses on how works of art reveal the truth of existence; Dufhener's perceptual phenomenology focuses on direct perceptual aesthetic experience and physical participation to connect the audience with the world.
6. Aesthetic experience and perception
Aesthetic experience is the inner experience that humans have when they come into contact with and appreciate works of art or natural beauty. It is subjective, emotional, cultural and personal.
1. Sensory perception and aesthetic feeling
Sensory perception and aesthetic feeling constitute the entrance to our experience of the art world and are the bridge connecting physical reality and the spiritual world.
1. Visual perception and aesthetics
Vision is the most direct and universal mode of perception in most art forms. When viewing works of art, our brains receive light through our eyes and analyze visual elements such as color, shape, texture, and spatial layout.
2. Auditory perception and aesthetics
In the music community, hearing becomes the main channel for aesthetic perception. Musical elements such as melody, harmony, rhythm, and timbre are transmitted to the brain through the ears, stimulating a series of emotional responses.
3. Multi-sensory integration and richness of aesthetic experience
In addition to sight and hearing, other senses play an important role in certain art forms. Yayoi Kusama’s “Infinity Mirrored Room”
2. The role of emotion and imagination in aesthetics
Emotion and imagination jointly construct the complex and profound interactive relationship between people and works of art in aesthetic experience.
1. The role of emotion in aesthetics
Emotion is the driving force of aesthetic experience. It not only affects people's perception of works of art, but also determines how we interpret and evaluate these works.
2. The role of imagination in aesthetics
Imagination is a creative thinking activity in aesthetic experience, which allows individuals to transcend directly perceived information and construct a personalized understanding and feeling of works of art.
3. The interaction of emotion and imagination
Emotion and imagination do not exist in isolation in the aesthetic process, but there is a close interactive relationship between them. Emotional experience can stimulate deeper imaginative activities, and conversely, rich imagination can also enhance the depth and breadth of emotions.
3. Individual differences and cultural background of aesthetic experience
1. The impact of individual differences on aesthetic experience
The reason why aesthetic experience shows diversity among different individuals is largely due to each person's unique psychological makeup and life experience. These factors include but are not limited to the following aspects: emotional experience, educational background, personality traits
2. The role of cultural background
Cultural background provides a framework and context for aesthetic experience. There are significant differences in aesthetic concepts and preferences formed under different cultural backgrounds.
Individual differences in aesthetic experience and cultural background work together to shape each person's unique aesthetic world. Understanding these differences helps us better appreciate and understand art, promotes cross-cultural communication and understanding, and also reminds people to maintain an attitude of development and respect for diversity when evaluating art.
7. Aesthetics and Culture
1. Aesthetics from a multicultural perspective
The study of aesthetics from a multicultural perspective emphasizes the coexistence of universality and particularity in aesthetics, and strives to find commonalities and possibilities for exchanges of aesthetics between different cultures while respecting the cultural differences of various ethnic groups.
1. Cross-cultural comparison
Cross-cultural comparison is one of the important methods for the study of multicultural aesthetics. By analyzing aesthetic concepts and artistic expressions in different cultural systems, it reveals the commonalities and differences in human pursuit of beauty and understanding.
2. Globalization and localization
Globalization has accelerated cultural exchange and integration. How local aesthetics can maintain its characteristics and influence global aesthetic trends in the context of globalization has become a question worth exploring.
2. Postmodern aesthetics
As a criticism and transcendence of modernist aesthetics, postmodern aesthetics represents a new mode of aesthetic thinking. It no longer seeks absolute truth or universally applicable aesthetic principles, but emphasizes the plurality, openness and constructiveness of aesthetic experience.
1. Derrida’s deconstruction
Derrida's deconstruction is a direct challenge to the traditional meaning of stable, closed texts. He believes that any text or semiotic system is a network composed of a series of differences that are constantly différiencing, that is, meaning is always produced in a production process that is constantly postponed and differentiated.
2. Foucault’s view of power and knowledge
Foucault believed that knowledge is not neutral and is always accompanied by the exercise of power. In the art world, this is reflected in the definition of "what is beauty" and "what is valuable art". Reveals that "high art" or "classics" are often shaped by specific historical conditions and social power structures, rather than by the inherent qualities of the art itself
Summarize
Derrida's structuralism and Foucault's view of power and knowledge together constitute the core of postmodern aesthetics. They challenge the authority and stability of traditional aesthetics, advocate a dynamic and relativistic aesthetic understanding and artistic practice, and emphasize The diversity and fluidity of aesthetic experience, and the openness and plasticity of the meaning of works of art
3. Ecological aesthetics and environmental art
As an interdisciplinary aesthetic theory, the core of ecological aesthetics is to break the binary opposition between man and nature in traditional aesthetics, and instead pursue a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the beauty of the natural environment, emphasizing the integrity and integrity of the ecological system. the role of people as part of
1. Theoretical basis
The theoretical cornerstone of ecological aesthetics lies in its deep respect and understanding of the natural world. It advocates that aesthetic perception should be extended to every corner of the natural world, and opposes treating nature only as the background or resource library of human activities, but treating it as intrinsic. The existence of value and aesthetic significance.
For example, the "non-anthropocentric theory of natural beauty" proposed by Alan Carlson
2. Examples of environmental art
Andy Goldsworthy, "Tree Castle"
3. Teaching and practice
In the field of environmental art ethics education, the integration of ecological aesthetics ethics has completely changed the traditional ethics teaching model. Take "dynamic teaching" as an example. This method encourages students to go out of the classroom and study and create directly in the natural environment, such as designing ecological sculptures in wetland reserves or integrating native plant community restoration plans into urban green space planning.
Summarize
The Interweaving of Aesthetics and Culture explores the nature of beauty and the diverse manifestations of artistic experience in multicultural contexts, the challenges of postmodern theory, and the emerging perspective of ecological aesthetics. The exploration of aesthetics and culture shows the process of continuous enrichment and deepening of the understanding of beauty with the development of culture and times.
8. Aesthetics and Life
1. Aesthetic experience in daily life
The aesthetic experience in daily life is a kind of spiritual enjoyment that is ubiquitous and runs through our every moment of perception. It transcends purely functional needs and touches the spiritual level.
1. Aesthetic experience in food
2. Aesthetic design of home environment
3. Aesthetic expression of personal clothing
4. Aesthetic discoveries during the journey
2. Design aesthetics and consumer culture
The relationship between design aesthetics and consumer culture is a striking phenomenon in the development of modern market economy. In this process, design aesthetics not only affects the appearance and function of goods, but also profoundly changes consumers' purchasing decisions, shaping new consumer trends and cultural features.
1. Design aesthetics and brand identity
Design aesthetics is an important source of brand differentiation
2. Establishment of emotional links
In consumer culture, design aesthetics establishes an emotional bond between consumers and products through emotional design.
3. Personalization and customization trends
As the consumer market matures, consumers' demand for personalization and customization is growing. Design aesthetics plays a key role in this trend, allowing consumers to participate in the design process and create unique products to meet individual needs.
4. The rise of sustainable design
Today, with the increasing awareness of environmental protection, design aesthetics is also combined with the concept of sustainability, promoting the formation of green consumption culture
3. New aesthetic challenges in the digital era
The digital age has not only expanded the boundaries of aesthetics, but also proposed a profound reflection on traditional aesthetic concepts.
1. Diverse and immersive aesthetic experience
The innovation of digital media, especially the application of VR and AR technology, has greatly enriched the way of aesthetic experience.
2. Aesthetic fatigue and appreciation cultivation
In the digital age, the massive amount and rapid circulation of information have led to over-saturation of aesthetic content, which can easily lead to aesthetic fatigue. Faced with constantly updated visual content on social media and fast-scrolling information on short video platforms, how to cultivate and maintain a high level of aesthetic appreciation in such an environment has become a major challenge
3. Discussion of digital art and originality
The rise of digital art, using algorithms to produce works of art, such as AI-drawn paintings, music works, etc., challenges the traditional sense of artistic originality and understanding.
4. Balance between democratization and commercialization of art
Digital technology has made art creation and dissemination more democratized. Anyone can display their works through digital platforms, but it has also intensified competition and commercialization pressure in the art market.
9. The status of aesthetics in philosophy, similarities and differences between Chinese and Western aesthetics
1. The status of aesthetics in philosophy
The discussion of aesthetics revolves around core issues such as the nature of beauty, the nature of art, the structure of aesthetic experience, and the generation mechanism of aesthetic feeling. These issues touch the core of human spiritual life, so the role of aesthetics in philosophy is particularly important and diverse.
1. Characteristics of aesthetics as a branch of philosophy
As a part of philosophy, aesthetics requires the use of philosophical abstract thinking abilities to explore aesthetic issues
2. Interdisciplinary characteristics
The interdisciplinary nature of aesthetics means that it is not limited to discussions within philosophy, but also interpenetrates with psychology, sociology, cultural studies and other fields.
3. Status changes in the history of philosophy
In the history of philosophy, the status of aesthetics is not static
4. Aesthetics from the perspective of aestheticism
Schiller believes that in modern civilization, people are split into the two poles of sensibility and rationality. Only aesthetic education can reconcile this split and promote the all-round development of people.
2. Similarities and differences between Chinese and Western aesthetic ideas
1. Characteristics of Western aesthetics
The philosophical foundation of Western aesthetics is deeply rooted in rationalism and logical analysis. Emphasis on the innovation, individual expression and critical function of reality in art, which is particularly evident in modernist and postmodernist art
2. Characteristics of Chinese aesthetics
Chinese aesthetics is deeply influenced by Taoism and Confucianism, and pays more attention to inner cultivation and harmonious coexistence with nature. Emphasis on the social function of art, believing that art should have the function of educating people's hearts, and emphasizing the intrinsic connection between the artist's moral cultivation and his artistic achievements, which is consistent with the Confucian idea of "literature to convey the Tao"
3. In-depth analysis of similarities and differences
different
Western aesthetics is closely connected with analytical philosophy and logical thinking. Some schools pursue objective aesthetic signs and the independent value of art; Chinese aesthetics focuses more on intuition, emotion and the inner response of nature, emphasizing the close connection between art, morality and society, and its educational role in spiritual life.
same
Whether it is the reverence for nature in Western romanticism or the attachment to landscapes in Chinese literati paintings, we can see the yearning for an ideal life state and a deep understanding of nature. Both try to touch the core of aesthetic experience in different ways. Although their emphases are different, they both reflect profound insights into human spiritual and cultural pursuits.