Philosophy is the study of wisdom. Wisdom contains people's cognitive level and logical ability, people's ethics and moral cultivation, people's broad mind and lofty ideals, etc.

Summary: Philosophy is a higher-level rational thinking activity that aims to explain the relationship between transcendence and experience, subjectivity and objectivity, the whole and the individual, the universal and the general, and pursues the long-term and fundamental interests of mankind as a whole.

1. The object of philosophical research is the fundamental cause (origin) of the world, that is, the "beginning". Fundamentalism holds that the world originated from a certain "beginning" and then returns to this "beginning" after evolution and development. Starting from the pursuit of the origin, various theoretical doctrines were subsequently formed. For example: Socrates' "goodness", Plato's "ideology", Democritus's "atomism", Schopenhauer's "theory of will"...

2. The basic relationships of the world, that is, the relationship between people, society, and nature, as well as the relationship between various internal aspects of each of the three.

Summary: Philosophy is a theory that explores the origin of the world; it is a theory about the relationship between universality and individuality, entities and attributes, finiteness and infinity, etc.; it is a theory about the relationship between human existence and the existence of the world; it is a theory about people and society , the theory of universal laws between nature and human understanding.

Philosophy makes the research object subjective and intellectual, and expresses it in the form of theory, which forms the content of philosophy.

Summary: Philosophy is a theory about ontology and metaphysics; it is a theory about epistemology, practice theory, and axiology; it is a theory about worldview.

Philosophy is a science about everything about human beings

Both Western philosophy and Chinese philosophy take "human being" itself as the starting point. Philosophical thinking cannot exist without "people". Therefore: Philosophy is the knowledge of everything about human beings.

The direct object of philosophy is the object of reflection, but it has an indirect relationship with the object of intuition.

1. Intuitive objects: objective things or phenomena existing in the sensible world;

2. Object of reflection: refers to the thought or theory itself, as well as the product of the thought or theory itself

Kant called reflection "reflective judgment", and poetry matches the species concept to the thinking activity under the genus concept. Hegel believed that people's intuitive formation of feelings and perceptions is the primary cognitive activity of people and belongs to the content of spiritual phenomenology. Reflecting on primary understanding to form concepts and judgments is the content of philosophy.

Objective objects: things that are objective in nature, have no purpose, and have no connection with human beings.

Subjective object: refers to the objective object reconstructed by people's subjective sensibility, intelligence and rationality

The objects of philosophy are mainly subjective objects. After subjective reconstruction, objective objects can be expressed in language

The object of philosophy is the object pointed by philosophical thinking, which is closely related to epistemology, practice theory, and methodology, and will gradually expand and deepen with the continuous enrichment of people's cognitive achievements.

Origin refers to the decisive part, origin and fundamental cause of something. The origin of the universe refers to the origin and fundamental cause of the universe

Questioning the cause—infinite causal chain—not satisfying vicious infinity—assuming the ultimate cause—the origin of the universe, the beginning of all things, the root of unity—the philosopher’s subjective reconstruction object (subjective object)—original theory

1. Based on intuitive objects

2. Based on quantitative relationships

3. Based on ideas

4. Based on entities

human existence

social existence

natural existence

The basic relationship between the three

The relationship between subject and object

Subjectivity and objectivity are subdivisions of the relationship between subject and object, and are one aspect of the relationship between subject and object. The essence of philosophical discussion of "thinking and existence" is the relationship between subjectivity and objectivity

Originating from experience and transcending experience

1. Transcendence of daily consciousness. The main manifestation is that concepts, judgments, and reasoning are formed based on sensory experience, and then expressed in daily language. The essence is to grasp the concrete facts perceived by the senses in the form of thinking.

2. The transcendence of scientific thought. It manifests itself as using scientific methods and under the guidance of scientific theories to conduct observations and experiments on scientific facts and the relationships between them, to derive relevant concepts, judgments, and reasoning, and to express them using scientific terms or artificial symbols. Its essence is that the research group constructs facts, phenomena, and relationships using an agreed ideological paradigm.

3. The transcendence of philosophical theories. Move into more abstract, transcendent realms based on everyday consciousness and scientific thought, or on the relationship between these consciousnesses and facts. Philosophy uses more abstract concepts (categories) to reveal and construct "universals", basic properties, and deep relationships that are different from the empirical world.

1. The transcendence of philosophical objects. The object of philosophy is the object of reflection and is not directly related to the empirical world.

2. The transcendence of philosophical expressions. Thinking activities such as philosophical discussion, thinking, and criticism are expressed through (logical) concepts, propositions, reasoning, and other forms.

3. Philosophy reconstructs the transcendence of the world. When philosophy grasps the world, it reconstructs the world according to human sensibility, intelligence, and rationality. This world reconstructed by philosophy is the unity of opposites between human purpose and the objective necessity of the empirical world. Subjective factors such as human purpose and value speculation are all transcendent.

It is composed of all aspects, levels, attributes, internal and external connections, possibility and reality, existence and development of the thing, as well as the causes and laws of these situations. All the above elements are listed and combined according to their inherent structural priorities, laws and order, which is the whole of a thing.

The habit of scientific research is to divide a whole thing into several unrelated aspects or parts, and then conduct in-depth and enlarged exploration and research on these independent aspects or parts. This achieves in-depth understanding, but it will lose horizontal understanding. . May lead to one-sided understanding

Philosophy fundamentally provides guidance on the overall view of things, avoiding or reducing deviations and omissions in logical thinking activities.

It refers to the integrity of people, society and nature. In common sense thinking, people tend to make a cognitive error, "seeing only the trees but not the forest."

Ignoring the wholeness, it is easy to attribute the attributes of a certain part to the attributes of the whole (partial worship)

Logical thinking: using human intelligence and rational cognitive activities as the carrier, in the form of concepts, judgments, and reasoning

Non-logical thinking: using people’s perceptual cognitive activities as the carrier, in the form of imagery, imagination, and association

Such as: daily thinking, literary and artistic thinking, scientific thinking, religious thinking, philosophical thinking, etc.

Features

aiming at essence or cause

Aim for results

Aiming at "being"

compared to the current value of something

Compared with practicality and utilitarianism

Critical thinking refers to clarifying the conditions and roots of the establishment of the object through comprehensive analysis and investigation of the object of thought, revealing its limitations and scope of application, and predicting possible fallacies that may arise when the object exceeds its scope of application.

It means that the thinking subject does not blindly accept objects or knowledge without rational examination

The critical nature of philosophical thinking is innate, because philosophy sets out to face unknown fields from the very beginning, and must ask "what" and "why" in everything.

Example

Where are the roots?

How did it develop?

In what form does it appear in thinking activities?

Material methods (experimentation, practice)

Methods of thinking (logical methods, non-logical methods)

Comprehensive method (a synthesis of the first two)

Understanding and researching objects;

Express and describe philosophical thoughts (results of understanding and research).

The objects of science are the facts and phenomena of the empirical world. Including facts and phenomena in nature, society, human physiology and psychology. Its mission is to reveal the logical relationships, as well as inevitable and universal connections between facts and phenomena through the study of facts and phenomena.

The research object of philosophy is thought and consciousness itself. Mainly summarize ideological materials and literature. The processing and sorting of materials mainly uses logical methods and is very flexible. There are no agreed terms and paradigms.

There is a fundamental cause - wood, fire, air, earth - the origin

How the fundamental cause produces all things, and how all things return to the original - the interaction between the attributes of the original and its contradictory side to explain.

Describe the details of the mutual transformation between the origin and all things - reasoning without any empirical basis

established the metaphysical object of philosophy

Established one of the "ultimate concerns of mankind", nature and freedom

Cross-examination means questioning, questioning, etc. Socrates' questioning method refers to exploring the truth and revealing fallacies through continuous questioning (from the side or opposite sides), and stimulates thinking subjects to think critically about their own beliefs and knowledge base.

Example: When people discuss the state of a certain thing or a certain phenomenon, they must first understand what is behind the state or phenomenon, that is, what is it?

Although the interrogation method is not a logical method and cannot produce concise and clear concept definitions, it cleverly avoids the one-sidedness of formal logic definition methods. While constantly enriching the connotation of the concept, it is also constantly eliminating things that do not belong to the connotation. While guiding people to pay attention to commonalities, they also pay attention to the relativity of characteristics.

Emphasis: The main purpose of the philosophical method is not to give a precise definition of the object, but to "exhaust" the different manifestations of the object under different conditions. From a philosophical point of view, the definition of any concept can only reveal part of its connotation, but cannot exhaust the entire meaning of the object. This is the difference between philosophical explanations of concepts (ideas) and logical definitions.

In logic, "deduction" refers to the logical reasoning of deriving individual conclusions from universal premises; in law, "deduction" refers to the demonstration of the relationship between legal basis and objective facts; in philosophy , "deduction" refers to the process of inference.

Kant’s conceptual deduction method is divided into

Categories are basic concepts in various knowledge fields. They are divided into scientific categories and logical categories according to their different scope of application in the corresponding knowledge areas.

In the ancient Greek period, dialectics was a method of debate, which refers to a method of refuting the other party's point of view by exposing the contradictions in the other party's argument during the debate. What is advocated is the "Law of Non-Contradiction"

On the basis of inheriting the idea that dialectics reveals the contradictions within things, Hegel regarded contradictions as universal laws that govern the development of all things and the world. He believes that dialectics is the true philosophical method. Only through dialectics can we grasp philosophical truths and truly acquire other scientific knowledge.

Marxist philosophy established the concept of practice and theory of practice, proposed the role of spirit on material capabilities and the reaction of social consciousness on social existence based on practice, further developed the idea of ​​dialectics, and regarded dialectics as an important method of understanding and transforming the world. .

Dialectical logic is the application and deepening of dialectics at the epistemological level. The former focuses on the study of the real world as a whole and its development laws, while the latter specializes in studying how thinking forms and logical structures conform to and reflect the basic principles of dialectics.

Modern analytic philosophy emphasizes using logic and language analysis as the main methods to discuss and solve philosophical problems. The rejection of dialectics is mainly reflected in the following aspects:

1. The rise of philosophy of language, which advocates solving philosophical problems through precise analysis of language structure and meaning. Dialectics emphasizes the movement of contradictions and the process of unity of opposites. This dynamic and informal description method does not conform to the linguistic accuracy and logical rigor pursued by analytical philosophy.

2. The position of logical positivism, which advocates that only statements that can be verified by experience or logical analysis are meaningful, and denies that certain propositions in metaphysics and traditional dialectics involve unobservable entities or processes. Such as "absolute truth" and "inherent contradictions in things"

3. Oppose metaphysics and criticize metaphysical theories for being too abstract and vague. Tends to transform philosophical issues into linguistic or logical issues rather than exploring the ontological structure and historical development laws of the world

4. Differences in methodology. Analytical philosophy focuses more on decomposing complex problems into simple components and using logical tools to conduct detailed analysis. It does not particularly emphasize the role of contradictions and conflicts in the cognitive process.

5. Influenced by pragmatism and empiricism, modern analytical philosophy tends to deal with operational concepts and specific factual evidence, while dialectics discusses more about the opposition and transformation between concepts, as well as the universal pattern of historical processes.

Surprise-doubt-criticism-argument-new conclusions, new ideas

Questioning means not believing in the premise, content, form, conclusion, etc. of the object of investigation, but expressing doubt. On the premise of excluding subjective bias, the root cause is that there are defects in the object itself, causing the object to be inconsistent with ideas or theories about the object. the solution to doubt, 1. Either transform the object itself, 2. Either change your thoughts or theories, 3. Either change the intermediary between the object and the idea or theory

Descartes, as the forerunner of the modern French Enlightenment, put forward the slogan of "doubt everything". All concepts that are not clearly presented before reason are worthy of doubt.

Starting from the epistemology of sensation, Hume questioned the validity of causality.

Criticism is to expose the fallacy of the object. Dialectical criticism refers to pointing out the rationality of the object while revealing its errors. Elements of philosophical criticism: the object of criticism, rational analysis of the object of criticism, revealing the fallacy of the object, and discussion of the consequences of the fallacy.

For example: Laozi's "Tao"; Confucius's "Heaven" and Mozi's "Love without attacking" "Principle" of Cheng-Zhu Neo-Confucianism; "Heart" of Lu-Wang Min-Xue

The basic nature of "origin" (primordial basis) is that everything begins here and returns here. "First cause" and "final destination" are all properties of the ontology.

The difference between origin and ontology

Parmenides believed that the being that can be thought is the noumenon, the most real existence. "Existence" can be thought of, but "non-existence" cannot be thought of.

Existence is not an abstract concept, but refers to the true reality that is unique, eternal, indivisible, neither born nor destroyed. It is knowable because it is an object that can be thought about. If it cannot be thought about, it cannot be known or expressed.

Non-existence represents the state or concept of the absence of anything. According to Parmenides' point of view, non-existence is not just "absence" or "nothing" in the real world, but an absolute state of negation. In his view, non-existence cannot produce existence, and existence cannot be transformed into non-existence. Therefore, "non-beings do not exist" is not only a logical statement, but also denies the view of generation from nothing or from something to nothing.

Under Parmenides' philosophical framework, "existence" is the most fundamental and ultimate description of the world. It is the absolute and only truth, can be thought of, and is the ontology. And "non-existence" is untenable nothingness, both logically and practically.

Plato believed that the idea is the prototype of all things, the fundamental existence, and the ontology.

"Idea" is the core concept of Plato's philosophy and the basis of his theory of ideas. It refers to the eternal and perfect reality that is independent of specific things and exists in a world beyond sensory experience.

All concrete things in the real world are imitations and participations of ideas. Specific things can only be close to the idea, but cannot be as perfect as the idea.

Plato believes that "ideas" are the universals or common characteristics of things, and specific things, particularities, and personalities are all subordinate to universals or common characteristics, that is, ideas. Therefore, the idea is the fundamental existence and the ontology.

Aristotle opposed Plato's "universal ontology", which advocated that single, specific things are real. This real existence is in the position of the subject in logical expression and is definitely called an entity. He advocated that entity is the existence itself, the noumenon.

Descartes believed that substance is noumenon. Entity is regarded as the fundamental element that constitutes the world and is the fundamental reality with independent existence. Both material entities and thinking entities are regarded by Descartes as basic existences in the ontological sense.

Spinoza believed that substance is noumena. An entity is that which is known in and through itself. It is a self-existing, self-contained being that does not need to depend on anything else for its essence or existence. Attributes are the essential manifestations of entities, and the attributes of entities are as infinite as entities.

Anselmo claimed that God is existence itself and proposed an ontological proof of the existence of God.

During the pre-Qin period of China, Lao-Zhuang thought held that Tao was the ontology of the universe, the source of the universe, and the beginning of all things. The so-called "Tao generates one, one generates two, two generates three, and three generates all things", that is, "Tao" is considered to be the basis and origin of the existence of all things in the universe, and is the fundamental entity or principle that constitutes and regulates everything.

Traditional ontology mainly discusses issues such as the nature, structure, categories and relationships of existence. It is a theoretical study of "what is existence", "how existence constitutes the real world" and "what are the basic types or categories of existence"

Basic questions

Development stage

Summarize

Traditional ontology believes that ontology is the "first cause" and "final cause" of the world. Different philosophical schools have different ontological objects, which are matter (nature, entity), spirit (idea, soul), and God. Doubts and limitations on ontology began with Hume and Kant. Modern logical positivism rejects traditional metaphysical ontology.

Hume's ontological doubts

Kant's restrictions on ontology

Logical positivism's rejection of ontology

Irrational ontology transformation

Reconstruction of ontological logic

Husserl's idea of ​​return

Heidegger's ontology

1. The nature of existence tending towards unity and order will inevitably lead to ontological thinking

2. The dialectics of the creation, existence and demise of things will inevitably lead to ontological thinking

3. Material entities are supported by nature, society, real people, etc. as content; Spiritual ontology is also supported by human psychological phenomena, psychological activities and their results as content. Although ideals are not equal to reality, ideals are derived from reality and will gradually become reality through people's practical activities and the evolution of the laws of the objective world.

Gorgias's Three Principles: Nothing exists; even if it exists, it cannot be known; even if it can be known, it cannot be expressed.

Summary: Gorgias’s three skeptical principles are a fundamental challenge to human cognitive abilities and knowledge acquisition processes, emphasizing the relativity and limitations of human cognition, and embodying the depth of ancient skeptical thought. and sharpness.

Epistemology refers to the philosophical doctrine that explores the nature of knowledge, the process and laws of the occurrence and development of knowledge, the results and verification of knowledge, etc. It is also called epistemology.

The Scottish philosopher Ferrier first proposed this concept in 1854. After 1862, the word "epistemology" was gradually widely mentioned in the form of a term. Questions about cognition have always been accompanied by the entire process of the emergence and development of philosophy. But the more systematic epistemological system emerged from modern European philosophy.

The further expansion and deepening of epistemological issues is regarded as an important turn in modern European philosophy. This turn occurred in line with the needs of modern European capitalism to develop productivity through science and technology. The progress of science and technology cannot be separated from the guidance of philosophical epistemology.

Epistemology is the theory about knowledge. It mainly discusses how humans acquire knowledge and what is the nature of knowledge.

Study our cognitive processes, cognitive methods, cognitive boundaries and possibilities of the world, as well as issues such as the authenticity, reliability and validity of knowledge.

core issues

core content

In epistemology, subject and object are a pair of basic concepts when discussing the process of human cognition, and are used to describe the two basic aspects of cognitive activities.

Cognitive subjects refer to people who have the ability to understand and practice activities. They are in specific social relationships and constantly understand and transform the world in practice. Including individual subjects, group subjects and social subjects. As the initiator and initiator in cognitive activities, what we need to answer is the question "who is knowing?" The main characteristics include: naturalness, sociality, consciousness, and practicality

The cognitive object refers to that part of objective existence that is pointed to and recognized during the subject's cognitive activities. It can be various forms of objective entities such as natural things, social phenomena, and spiritual products. In cognitive activities, he is the pointed person and the passive one, answering the question of "what do you know?" The main characteristics include: objectivity, objectivity

The distinction between subject and object is a historical process. In the early days of mankind, subject and object were in a chaotic identity. It was not until the middle period of ancient Greece that Empedocles initially established the distinction between subject and object, but still maintained a relatively primitive identity with some kind of substance as the intermediary. In the pre-Qin period, Guanzi used the two concepts of "this" and "that" to distinguish the subject and the object in epistemology. He said: "What he knows is that; what he knows is this."

After the long period of religious theology in the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the geographical discovery, the Reformation, and the subsequent industrial revolution and technological development, people returned to rationality and initially established a one-sided concept of subjectivity. The so-called one-sided subject is relative to the comprehensive subject. The comprehensive subject is the unity of perceptual subject and rational subject, cognitive subject and practical subject, and the unity of subject and object.

The subject since modern times is characterized by the separation of sensibility and rationality, the separation of theory and practice, and the opposition between subject and object. Although the subject and object are consciously distinguished, the division between subject and object is still one-sided, and the understanding of the subject is still incomplete.

Marx's philosophy introduced the concept of practice and dialectics into epistemology and established a relatively comprehensive theory of subject-object relations. Ma Zheba The subject is understood as the real person in social relations who carries out practical activities and cognitive activities; the object is understood as the object that enters the human practice field and the human field.

The relationship between subject and object

The basis of this relationship lies in social practice. Through practice, the subject continuously deepens its understanding of the object, and at the same time continuously improves and develops itself in the process.

Cognition refers to the process in which people, as subjects, understand and grasp the existence status, attributes, essence and development laws of things through senses, thinking and other means. It is the result of the interaction between people and the external world, and embodies the subject's cognitive schema and understanding framework of the external world. Cognition does not directly map reality, but goes through a series of complex psychological and thinking processes.

Subject and object of cognition and relationship

Basic stages of understanding process

cognitive properties

2-1, materialist epistemology

2-2, idealist epistemology

2-3, Epistemology in modern philosophy

The purpose of exploring the basic issues of the possibility of cognition is to reveal the ontological nature of subject and object and their relationship. Explain "why recognition is possible" and "how it is possible"

Understand the connotation of the basic question of possibility:

Descartes said, "I think, therefore I am." He believed that the subject of cognition is the spiritual "I think" or self-consciousness; the object of cognition is the innate concept, which is also the spirit. Therefore, the subject and object of cognition have the same origin, and the basis of the cognition advocated is the thinking and spirituality of the subject.

Leibniz believed that the human mind is the subject of knowledge, and the mind is a monad with strong perceptual ability and memory. The mind and various types of monads have the same root and origin, and at the same time have the same predetermined harmony. This is the premise and basis for the possibility of the mind knowing objects.

Hegel advocated that the absolute spirit first externalizes itself into nature, and then generates the subjective spirit in the long-term evolution of nature. The subjective spirit knows nature and recognizes objects. Its essence is that the absolute spirit knows itself, and the same kind knows the same kind.

Xunzi: "Everything that can be known is the nature of human beings; what can be known is the principle of things." "If you know it in your heart, you can then teach it; if you can teach it, you can then keep the Tao and prohibit the non-Tao. If you take people with the Tao mind, then they will be harmonious. It is suitable for Taoists; it is not suitable for unruly people.” The mind has the ability to recognize and understand universal principles; At the same time, have the ability to express and communicate this universal principle; Finally, it also has the ability to practice universal principles from both the positive and negative sides. These four aspects are the basis of the possibility of understanding revealed by Xunzi

Skeptics and agnostics doubt and deny the basis of human knowledge. They either cannot understand the dialectical relationship between existence and non-existence, the dialectical relationship between subject and object, or they cannot understand perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge, The dialectical relationship between finite and infinite, absolute and relative, individuality and universality, etc.

Empiricism advocates that the only source of knowledge is sensory experience. All knowledge is a reflection or summary of experience, and there is no knowledge independent of experience. We firmly believe that "everything that exists in the intellect already exists in the senses", that is, rational knowledge ultimately still relies on perceptual experience.

Bacon proposed that "knowledge is the representation of existence", emphasizing that knowledge comes from direct perception of the external world.

Hobbes compared perceptual knowledge to the relationship between "action force and reaction force" in mechanical motion, emphasizing the physical basis of perceptual knowledge.

Regarding the generation of rational knowledge, empiricists believe that it is based on perceptual knowledge, and organizes, analyzes and organizes perceptual materials through methods such as induction, three tables (the inductive logic tool proposed by Bacon), calculation, and comparison. Generalize to derive general rules or theoretical knowledge.

Rationalism believes that human knowledge comes from two sources, namely perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge. But at the same time, it is believed that perceptual knowledge is unstable and unreliable because of its individuality and variability, while rational knowledge has inevitability, universality and certainty, so rational knowledge is regarded as a real and reliable source of knowledge.

Spinoza put forward the view that reason and the "ideological nature" of external objects work together to produce rational knowledge. It is believed that human rationality is not isolated from the world, but is consistent with the inner nature of external objects, that is, "imagination". Through rational self-reflection and insight into the order of the universe, one can grasp the truth.

The differences between empiricism and rationalism are mainly reflected in: the priority of sensory experience and rational thinking in the cognitive process, the innate and acquired nature of the origin of knowledge, the inductive and deductive nature of cognitive methods, and the empirical conformity of truth standards. nature and logical self-evidence, as well as different evaluations of cognitive reliability.

Kant proposed the concept of "a priori comprehensive judgment" and believed that knowledge includes both the form provided by innate (rational) and the content provided by acquired (experience). It is argued that rational knowledge does not entirely rely on innate concepts, but also cannot be separated from the enrichment of perceptual experience; at the same time, perceptual experience can only form meaningful knowledge within the innate framework provided by reason.

Dialectical materialism believes that human understanding is generated in the practice of transforming the world, and practice is the source and motivation of understanding.

In modern Europe, some scholars proposed four types of truth. There are two definitions in the ontological sense: the consistency of a thing itself, the consistency of a thing and its appearance; Defined from an epistemological sense: it is the consistency between a concept and its reflected object; Defined in a logical sense: for the consistency between concepts

On the nature and function of truth, Some philosophers maintain that truth is a kind of knowledge; Some emphasize that truth is an exploratory activity; Some think it is a belief or ideal; Some insist that it is a tool; Some interpret it as a means to achieve an end; Some claim that it is a guide or guide for the direction of human behavior.

The core idea of ​​the correspondence theory of truth is that a statement, theory or idea is considered truth if and only if it accurately reflects the objects, states or relationships in the real world. It is presupposed that the object of cognition has characteristics independent of the subject of cognition.

China

The west

In modern Western philosophy, philosophers such as Schlick, Carnap, Russell, Wittgenstein, and Austin have inherited and developed the correspondence theory of truth to varying degrees, emphasizing that the truth value of a statement or proposition depends on its relationship with Real world relationships.

Questions about the standard of truth: Correspondence theorists believe that the test of truth needs to refer to an objectively existing standard that transcends individual cognition. Dialectical materialism emphasizes that the truth of a theory or concept does not depend on its consistency with an abstract, transcendent prototype, but on whether it can be verified in practice and whether it can guide social practice and achieve success. expected effect.

The coherence theory of truth puts forward a new standard of judgment: the authenticity of a proposition or theory does not depend on whether it can accurately reflect or conform to empirical phenomena, but whether it can be compared with known propositions or theoretical systems that are considered to be true. Be contradictory or coherent.

Leibniz distinguished between factual truth and logical truth

Modern European rationalists, such as Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz and Hegel, emphasized reason, internal logic and system integrity, and tended to build grand and self-consistent philosophical systems. It is often independent of specific empirical facts and relies on the internal consistency of concepts, principles and logical reasoning to establish truth status.

Neo-Hegelians, such as Bradley and Blanchard, believe that truth should be a self-justifying moral concept or knowledge system without internal contradictions, rather than simply corresponding to external empirical facts.

Logical positivism, represented by Neurath, Hempel, Ayer and Quine. Its core point is to emphasize the importance of empirical basis for knowledge and meaning, but at the same time pay attention to the role of logical structure in the knowledge system.

Disadvantages: The main limitation of the coherence theory of truth lies in its incomplete theoretical treatment of empirical content. Although it can effectively analyze and evaluate whether the logical form of a theory is consistent with the known truth system, it cannot directly answer questions about whether the empirical content is true, and is often regarded as an incomplete view of truth.

The main positions and propositions of the pragmatist view of truth:

In Scotland, Hume emphasized the reliability of sensation and the subjectification of causality. It is believed that the reliable basis for human knowledge can only be human sensory experience. The existence of things beyond the scope of perception, such as material entities and spiritual entities, cannot be determined through direct experience, and therefore cannot become the exact object of knowledge. A profound criticism of causality: causality is not a real existence, but a subjective psychological habit formed by people based on experience.

Poincare believes that some concepts and principles in science are not precise depictions of objective reality, but are agreements reached by scientists to facilitate understanding and communication. It is argued that the effectiveness of truth is superior to its correctness and truth.

Peirce put forward the question of the effect of concepts and theories in use, replacing the concern about the reality and correctness of their content. Four approaches were also proposed: the stubborn method (focusing on individual intuition), the authoritative method (focusing on authoritative teachings), the transcendental method (focusing on universal a priori principles), and the scientific method (knowledge obtained through empirical testing). To confirm beliefs to ensure that concepts and theories can be effectively applied in practice.

Beauty, James advocated that the world is essentially a whole composed of sensory experience, in which there is no strict distinction between subject and object, knower and object. Truth is not the consistent relationship between knowledge and objects, but the consistent relationship between different experience processes. The so-called "true" is the name of any concept that confirms the process; "useful" is the name of the concept that has completed its role in experience.

Beauty, Dewey argued, is that ideas, concepts, and theories are nothing but tools designed by people to achieve their desired ends. The criterion of truth lies not in the truth or falsehood of a theory, but in its effectiveness or ineffectiveness in practical application.

In ancient philosophy, Mencius demonstrated his profound insight into value issues by discussing the trade-off between "bear's paws and fish" and "life and righteousness". They put forward the basic categories of value discussion such as "desire", "desire", "take" and "give up". Put forward people's "righteousness and benefit" as the standard for value judgment. It touches on the difference between what is and what should be ideally. Through the fable of "self-contradiction", Han Feizi reveals the dilemma of people who forcefully pursue "getting both of them" when they do not meet the conditions because they do not understand the way to choose. It reminds people that logical judgment is closely related to value observation, and logical errors may originate from the distortion of value concepts.

In ancient Greek philosophy, Socrates shifted the focus of philosophical inquiry from nature to humans, emphasized the importance of individual moral quality and value judgment, and started a human-centered philosophical tradition. Protagoras put forward the proposition that "man is the measure of all things", emphasizing the decisive role of human subjective cognition in evaluating the existence of things.

In modern European philosophy, philosophers began to deeply explore the relationship between necessity and freedom, what is and should be, and fact and value. Hume was the first to raise the question of whether we can deduce oughts (values) from what we are (facts). Kant further distinguished between natural science (the study of real things) and moral philosophy (the study of ought things), that is, real things and ought things, emphasizing the independence of value judgments and the transcendental nature of moral laws.

Regarding the development and systematization of axiology, Lotze introduced the concept of value into philosophy and pioneered the division of the world into the field of facts, the field of universal laws and the field of value.

Windelban emphasized philosophy as the vitality of value science and believed that nature can be explained through laws, while historical culture must be understood and interpreted with the help of values.

Rickert advocated that the world consists of two parts: reality and value, and the core issue of philosophy is to explore the relationship and unity between the two.

Modern philosophy has further deepened its exploration of value issues. Logical positivists represented by Schlick believe that science and value are essentially different.

Modern humanistic philosophy places subjective factors such as human will, beliefs, needs, personality, and experience at the core of the theory of value, and believes that these factors form the basis of individual value judgments.

Marx's labor theory of value points out that labor practice is not only the process of creating people and society, but also the process of realizing the essence and value of people.

value

values

Summary: Value theory explores the concept of value, its generation mechanism, the basis for judging value, as well as the connotation, formation process, nature distinction standards and practical significance of values. Understanding value theory helps us better understand and deal with value issues in real life, clarify the value orientation of individuals and society, and promote social harmony and progress.

In terms of existence, there are six main types of value:

Other types of value

Classification of human consciousness

value consciousness includes

Three levels of value consciousness

connotation

Function

Due to the relativity of value, when faced with limited resources or conflicts, people must evaluate and choose between different values. In the process of evaluation, people first understand the attributes and characteristics of things, and then combine their own needs and values ​​to judge whether they are valuable to themselves and how valuable they are, thereby determining their own value orientation.

Common examples of value evaluation: good and evil, beauty and ugliness, pros and cons, gains and losses, misfortune, honor and disgrace, quality, nobility, usefulness, useless, cute and hateful, appropriate or inappropriate, worthy or not, should or not, important or not, priorities, etc.

Value evaluation is a process in which evaluation subjects (such as individuals, groups, societies, etc.) subjectively evaluate or value specific value relationships. For the same thing or the same value relationship, different evaluation subjects will produce different evaluations.

The reasons leading to this kind of subjective arbitrariness: class position restrictions, cognitive level restrictions, and the influence of subject status.

The final positive or negative evaluation made by the evaluation subject and its degree directly depend on the needs in his consciousness.

Scientific value evaluation requires compliance with the objective nature of things and development laws, social and historical development trends, and the common interests of mankind.

As an evaluation subject, we should also establish correct values, scientifically understand the relationship between the attributes, laws and human needs of things, and avoid evaluation based solely on subjective desires.

Value judgment is the purposeful and conscious advance understanding and prediction activity of the possible results of value relationships. It is based on empirical research to creatively predict the possible results of the interaction between value subjects and value objects in the future.

Creatively proposing predictions about future potential values ​​and determining practical directions and principles and policies are the key to successful practice and an important stage for people to display their creativity and wisdom.

Overview

1. Values ​​in Chinese traditional culture-content and characteristics

2. Chinese traditional cultural values ​​- economic, social and cultural foundation

Overview

1. The basic content and characteristics of Western values

2. Western values ​​- economic, social and cultural foundation

The so-called ontological philosophy refers to the most important philosophical form established by the ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle and throughout the entire traditional Western philosophy. It takes "entity" as its core and is a "pure principle embodiment" formed through the logical deduction of a series of abstract categories to explain why existence exists. Transcendence and substantiality are its basic characteristics. In the view of ancient philosophers, the things that serve as the foundation cannot be intangible and illusory, otherwise the world would be unreliable and unreal. Therefore, in ancient Greek philosophy, the concept of "entity" played an important role, and eventually formed a powerful "entification" tradition in the history of Western philosophy. Philosophers always try to find some kind of entity in all phenomena. Called the entity hidden behind.

With the philosophy of Socrates as the boundary, Greco-Roman philosophy has undergone a huge turn. Protagoras' proposition that "man is the measure of all things" indicates that Greek philosophy has begun to realize that people themselves and things related to people are in philosophy. importance in scope. The proposition that "man is the measure of all things" indicates that Greek philosophy began to realize the importance of man himself and things related to him in the scope of philosophy. Realize the transformation from ontological metaphysics and natural philosophy of narrow cosmology as the center to equal emphasis on ethics, political philosophy, metaphysics, and natural philosophy, referred to as the ethical turn

Considering that metaphysics and natural philosophy belong to Aristotle’s so-called theoretical philosophy, while ethics and political philosophy belong to his so-called practical philosophy, this shift can also be called: from theoretic-centered to theoretical philosophy and practice Philosophy pays equal attention to transformation.

Since Socrates, most philosophers' ethical views believe that people should pay attention to the cultivation of virtue; the purpose of moral cultivation is the perfection of human nature and the happiness of life; true happiness is not sensory enjoyment but spiritual pleasure; morality and happiness are consistent; justice requires everyone to get what they deserve; people should temper their desires and control their passions; people should pursue a noble realm of life in the world. Most of the topics in political philosophy believe that: the state is formed by the people for one or more purposes; the state is responsible for protecting the common interests of the people; the government can be divided into three categories: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy; the state Members can be divided into multiple classes or classes; people of different classes or strata enjoy different political rights and even different personality status; politicians should be wise and fair

In the later stages of the development of ancient Greek philosophy, people already had the beginnings of self-awareness. With the deepening of rational thinking, people can distinguish between essence and phenomenon, sensibility and rationality, so that the principles contained in early ancient Greek philosophy have been rationally promoted and demonstrated. This not only finally established philosophy as a specialized science, but also enabled people to gradually deepen their understanding of themselves in the inevitable connection between thinking and existence, and gave rise to a subjective philosophical tendency that takes human rational reflection as its theoretical purpose. It is under such a theoretical premise that modern philosophy began its epistemological turn.

The core of humanistic thought is to use human nature to oppose emotions, and use human rights to oppose divine power. They opposed medieval theology's view of exalting God and belittling human beings, affirmed human value, emphasized the value of human beings, and boldly and passionately pursued the happiness and joy of human real life; they opposed medieval obscurantism, respected human experience and rationality, and advocated understanding Nature, benefiting life, advocating the comprehensive and free development of human beings; emphasizing that human dignity and value lie in the human being itself, advocating individual liberation, promoting human free will, and requiring the improvement of human independent status.

With the development of the capitalist mode of production, the consciousness of subjectivity in modern times has become increasingly strong, and two major philosophical factions have emerged: British empiricism represented by Bacon, Locke, and Hobbes, and continental rationalism represented by Descartes. Bounded by the philosophy of Bacon and Descartes, modern Western philosophy has undergone a huge turn, which is also the second major turn of Western philosophy. That is, the shift from metaphysics as the center to epistemology beyond metaphysics, referred to as the epistemological turn. Bacon was the first representative of modern materialist empiricism. He was the first to propose that the thinking subject should actively intervene in nature to make it serve mankind. It laid a certain foundation for the requirements and ideological trends of unifying thinking and existence, subject and object in modern philosophy.

Starting from Bacon and Descartes, the discussion of knowledge has occupied an important position, even the only dominant position, in the theoretical systems of most modern philosophers. The two major factions in modern Western philosophy, empiricism and rationalism, are named after the two ideological trends in epistemology regarding the origin, limits and standards of knowledge.

The main epistemological issues that modern philosophers are concerned about include: the origin of cognition, the scope or limit of cognition, the categories or levels of cognition, the standard of cognition truth, the ability to cognize, the way of cognition, the process of cognition, the laws of cognition, various cognition The relationship between cognitive elements (feeling, reason, intuition), the relationship between various types of knowledge (perceptual, rational, intuitive knowledge), etc. They can be roughly divided into two schools: empiricism and rationalism

The first problem Kant faced was the issue of epistemology. He inherited and developed the theory of knowledge in the history of Western philosophy. The three-part division of cognitive process consists of the three links of "perceptual", "intellectual" and "rational", which constitute his entire epistemological system. His "Three Critiques" answered four questions: "What is man?" "What can man know?" "What man should do" and "What man should hope for." It extends the rational authority of man, demonstrates man's subjective role, weakens the power of God, and establishes man's dominant position in nature and social life.

Hegel inherited and developed Fichte's and Schelling's thoughts on the combination of positive and negative, and expanded the highest unity of "absolute spirit" into three major stages: logic, nature, and spirit, that is, from thinking to existence, and from subject to subject. The process of reaching the object and then reaching the unity of the two completes the idealist theory of the identity of thinking and existence, subject and object. Based on his philosophical stance of objective idealism, Hegel defined world history as the completion of self-knowledge of the "absolute spirit", and regarded human beings as the externalization of the "absolute spirit" and the bearer of completed self-awareness. Therefore, man is determined by Hegel as the specific and direct starting point of social history.

As the last outstanding representative of German classical philosophy, Feuerbach completed the bourgeois critique of religious theology and directly restored the authority of materialism. He claimed that his philosophy was humanistic. He refuted Kant's dualistic thought and agnosticism that separated thinking and existence, subject and object, and criticized Hegel's idealism theory of the identity of thinking and existence. Starting from the belief that the soul and body are unified, he established "humanistic" materialism

Bounded by the philosophy of Russell and Wittgenstein, modern philosophy has undergone a huge shift, from metaphysics and epistemology as the center to the philosophy of language and philosophy of science, referred to as the philosophy of language turn. Although this third turn mainly occurs in British and American philosophy, some European philosophers also attach great importance to language issues, such as Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, Heidegger, one of the founders of existentialism, and Hermeneutics, the most important Representative figures such as Gadamer

Moore's article "Refutation of Idealism" published in 1869 showed the common belief of the younger generation of British philosophers that they intended to break with traditional philosophy in order to get rid of the crisis of philosophy. In 1918, Russell's "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism" was published. He admitted that many of its ideas came from Wittgenstein or were influenced by him. He believes that in order to create a logically perfect ideal philosophical language, it is necessary to reconstruct a precise philosophical grammar, and such philosophical grammar can only come from a rigorous logical analysis of the facts that make up the world. He called the simplest facts atomic facts, complex facts (mainly composed of atomic facts) molecular facts, and called propositions expressing atomic facts and molecular facts atomic propositions and molecular propositions respectively.

In 1921, Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was published. He asserted that most of the questions and propositions in previous philosophy (especially metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics) were meaningless questions and propositions, because they were among the unthinkable and unspeakable, and were motivated by a lack of understanding of language logic. Puzzled or ignorant

Philosophy of language as a faction is analytic philosophy, or analytic philosophy mainly belongs to the philosophy of language in terms of disciplines. Analytical philosophy mainly includes schools such as logical positivism (also called logical empiricism, including the Vienna School, the Berlin School, and the Warsaw School) and everyday language analysis (including the Cambridge School and the Oxford School).

The main topics in the philosophy of language that modern philosophers focus on include: the nature, principles, types, structures, and functions of language; the relationship between language, thinking, and logic; the relationship between language symbols, objects, and interpreters; the meaning of propositions and their relationship to truth. relationship; the relationship between metalanguage and object language; speech acts, private language, etc.

Due to the differences in social systems and cultural backgrounds, the formation of Chinese and Western ethical thoughts is deeply influenced by their respective unique social structures and cultural traditions. In the process of development, Western ethics has experienced multiple development paths from classical philosophy, medieval Christian ethics, to moral relativism and utilitarianism in the modern Enlightenment period. Although there are many internal schools of Chinese ethics, it generally revolves around Confucian ethics and gradually absorbs ideas such as Taoism and Legalism, forming a relatively coherent development line.

Chinese ethical thought has gone through four main stages of development

The development of Chinese ethical thought is a dynamic, continuous process of integration and innovation. It not only profoundly reflects the historical changes in Chinese society, but also provides rich ideological resources for solving ethical issues in contemporary society.

1. Slavery period in ancient Greece and Rome

2. Medieval Feudal Period

3. Modern capitalism period

4. Modern capitalism period

Summarize

book list

From a metaethical perspective, the concepts of good and evil are regarded as the essence of value judgments. Moral relativism exhibits internal diversity; Absolutism emphasizes the universality and immutability of moral truth.

Moral reasoning models: Discussions of legitimacy can draw on various moral reasoning models; Justification and moral intuition: When humans make moral judgments, they often rely on quick and intuitive moral intuitions.

In ethics, justice often revolves around topics such as fairness, equality, respect for human rights, due process, and the correction of injustice. Global justice: In the context of globalization, the concept of justice has expanded to the international level, exploring cross-border distributive justice, human rights protection, environmental protection and other issues; Intergenerational justice: Justice also involves intergenerational considerations, that is, how current actions and policies affect the well-being of future generations.

The distinction between values ​​and facts is the basis of normative ethics and descriptive ethics. Normative ethics focuses on what "should" be done, while descriptive ethics studies how humans actually make moral judgments. Moral naturalism: As an attempt to solve the problem of "is" and "ought", it claims that moral properties can be reduced to natural properties.

Hume proposed that "ought" cannot be logically derived from "is". "Is" is a descriptive statement and "ought" is a normative statement. This is known as "Hume's gap"

Happiness economics, psychology, and interdisciplinary research attempt to quantify happiness, explore various factors that affect happiness, and evaluate the role of different policies and social practices in improving happiness. Aristotle believed that happiness lies in practicing virtue and realizing human potential. Modern happiness research pays more attention to subjective happiness, life satisfaction and the concepts of positive psychology.

Moral Conflicts and Resolution of Conscience: When faced with complex moral decisions, individuals may face conflicts in their conscience. Methods of resolving conflicts of conscience include applying moral principles, appealing to higher moral values, engaging in ethical dialogue and reflection.

Conscientious Objection: Under certain circumstances, an individual may conscientiously refuse to perform certain tasks or orders. The phenomenon sparks in-depth discussions about personal power, social responsibility, and the tension between law and ethics

Education and conflict of conscience: The formation of conscience is not only the result of the individual's inner development, but also affected by family education, social environment and cultural traditions. In addition, conscience may conflict with other moral obligations or personal interests, causing people to fall into ethical "conscience dilemmas"

Sources and conflicts of obligations: In-depth analysis of the sources of obligations can be divided into legal obligations, contractual obligations, moral obligations, etc. Conflicts of obligations are common problems in ethics, and resolving such conflicts requires complex moral reasoning and value trade-offs.

Descriptive ethics is based on specific historical materials, describing and studying the actual moral relationships, moral norms, moral concepts, moral structures, moral traditions, social disciplines, etc. in various societies, ethnic groups, and class social groups, and conducting social academic and historical analysis.

1. Moral relationships and norms

2. Moral concepts and structures

3. Morals and traditions

4. Social discipline

5. Education and Application

Normative ethics takes people's actual moral relationships, moral consciousness and moral activities as its research objects, and explores and analyzes human mission, the meaning of life, ideal personality, social value standards and specific obligations from the perspective of a philosophical world view Requirements and other issues, focusing on the theoretical argument and practical application of moral principles and norms.

1. Research objects and scope

2. Perspective of the philosophical world

3. Value standards and obligation requirements

4. Value analysis and normative science

Metaethics focuses on exploring the nature of moral language, the meaning of moral judgments, and the possibilities and structures of moral reasoning. It does not directly focus on which actions are good or evil (this belongs to the category of normative ethics) nor does it involve specific moral practice issues (such as what applied ethics deals with), but goes deep into the underlying logic of moral language and concepts Go with the structure.

1. The meaning of moral language

2. The nature of moral judgment

3. Moral realism and anti-realism

Applied ethics mainly studies and solves ethical and moral problems in real life, so that ethics and morality can better play their role. In terms of research objects, it focuses on the specific application of normative ethics theory in moral life; in terms of research tasks, it guides the specific practice of human moral life; in terms of research methods, it mainly focuses on empirical, descriptive and puzzle methods, focusing on the role of ethics and morality. perform effectively

Family virtues, professional ethics, social ethics, administrative ethics, economic ethics, environmental theory, bioethics, science and technology ethics

1. Family virtues

2. Professional ethics

3. Social ethics

4. Administrative ethics

5. Economic Ethics

6. Environmental Ethics

7. Bioethics

8. Science and Technology Ethics

Since ethics is an extremely complex social phenomenon, ethicists start from different world views and methodologies, and adopt different scopes and perspectives. The research objects of ethics are very different, and the divisions of ethics are also very different.

book list

Ethics occupies a core position in the field of philosophy and is an important part of philosophy's exploration of human nature, values ​​and behavioral norms. As a key branch of philosophy, ethics not only benefits from the basic theories of philosophy such as metaphysics, ontology, epistemology, logic, and philosophy of language, but also enriches the connotation of philosophy and promotes fundamental understandings of morality, good and evil, and justice. An in-depth discussion of the issue. The close connection between ethics and other areas of philosophy demonstrates the mutual support and promotion within the knowledge system.

The historical origins of science and philosophy can be traced back to ancient civilizations, when the two were not strictly distinguished and philosophers were also explorers of natural sciences.

Ancient Greece is a great example of the intersection of science and philosophy. Thales's theory of water origin marked the beginning of natural philosophy; Aristotle's systematic discussion of physics, biology, and logic provided a framework for subsequent scientific research methods.

The ancient Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations' achievements in astronomy and mathematics, such as specifying calendars and calculating geometric areas, reflected early mankind's exploration of the laws of nature.

During the European Middle Ages, Aquinas tried to integrate Aristotle's philosophy with Christian teachings. Although this restricted the freedom of scientific exploration to a certain extent, it also paved the way for the subsequent Renaissance and Scientific Revolution.

During the Renaissance, Copernicus' heliocentric theory, Galileo's experimental methods, Descartes' rationalism, etc., gradually separated science from philosophy and became an independent discipline.

In the Age of Enlightenment, Kant’s concept of “a priori comprehensive judgment” provided a philosophical foundation for the development of scientific philosophy.

Science and philosophy are intertwined in their origins. Philosophy provides science with the initial thinking framework and methodological basis. The development of science continues to push philosophy to think about the limits of knowledge, the legitimacy of methods, and the relationship between science and human society.

Philosophy of science is a basic philosophical discipline that explores the nature of scientific knowledge, scientific methodology, the structure and evolution of scientific theories, and scientific practice.

Main focus and discussion: the nature of science, the structure of scientific theories, scientific explanations, scientific testing and verification, the relationship between scientific observations and theories, the choice of scientific theories, the relationship between science and reality, scientific logic and methodology

Philosophy of science plays a key role in defining what is science and what is pseudoscience. It not only has a profound impact on scientific theory and practice itself, but also is of great significance to the interaction between science and society, the dissemination and acceptance of scientific knowledge, and the formation of scientific culture.

It is not only a reflection on scientific activities themselves, but also provides profound insights into the development direction, methodology, theoretical construction, and the interaction between science and society.

1. The logical structure and reality of scientific theories

2. Scientific explanation and prediction

3. Debate between scientific realism and anti-realism

4. The intertwining of science and values

book list

In the field of philosophy of science, the discussion of the nature and boundaries of knowledge is not only related to how we understand the world, but also touches on the cornerstone of scientific methods and epistemology.

the nature of knowledge

the limits of knowledge

As the core framework to guide scientific research and theory construction, scientific methodology contains a series of basic principles: induction and deduction, hypothesis-deduction method, statistical reasoning and probability theory, scientific explanation and understanding

1. Induction and deduction

2. Hypothesis-deduction

3. Statistical reasoning and probability theory

4. Scientific explanation and understanding

Philosophy of science’s thinking on the relationship between scientific theory and reality is not only a theoretical discussion, but also a philosophical activity that has a profound impact on scientific practice. It is related to the foundation and future direction of scientific cognition.

1. Theories originate from reality and try to explain reality

2. Theory guides practice and predicts the unknown

3. Practice test theory

4. Theory revision and development

5. Abstraction of theory and complexity of reality

6. Limitations of the theory

empiricism

rationalism

While empiricism and rationalism have historically been viewed as opposing philosophical positions, modern science often combines the best of both

hypothesis

predict

Experimental verification

Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning are two basic and important forms of reasoning in logic. They play a core role in scientific exploration, philosophical thinking, and daily life, and each undertakes different tasks and functions.

inductive reasoning

deductive reasoning

Summarize

Popper opposed the inductivist position in logical empiricism, arguing that scientific theories can never be absolutely confirmed by limited observations because no matter how many positive cases there are, counterexamples that may be encountered in the future cannot be ruled out.

1. The nature of scientific theories: falsifiability

2. The growth of scientific knowledge: trial and error and critical rationalism

3. Distinguish between science and non-science

4. Criticism of induction

The core view of verificationism is that the meaning and authenticity of scientific theories or propositions lie in their ability to be consistent with empirical observations or to be supported by these observations. Emphasizes the empirical basis of scientific knowledge and advocates that theories are meaningful only if they can be empirically verified

defend

limitations

In contemporary philosophy of science, the defense of falsificationism and positivism has evolved into a more complex discussion, no longer simply an either/or between the two. It not only recognizes the role of falsification in the development of scientific theories, but also recognizes the importance of verification in building and maintaining theoretical systems.

Contemporary discussions in the philosophy of science pay more attention to the fact that the development of scientific theories is a dynamic and iterative process, in which the concepts of falsificationism and verificationism are integrated into a broader and more delicate methodological framework.

Scientific realism advocates that scientific theories not only describe phenomena, but also reveal the nature of the objective world, even those entities and processes that cannot be intuitively perceived are no exception.

Features

Anti-realists re-examine the nature and functions of scientific theories through various perspectives such as theoretical instrumentalism, constructivism and critical realism, providing us with profound insights into the generation, development and limitations of scientific knowledge.

1. Theoretical instrumentalism: a pragmatic picture of science

2. Constructivism: the social and cultural context of scientific knowledge

3. Critical realism: limitations and pursuits of epistemology

Realism and anti-realism, the former firmly believes that scientific theories directly map objective reality, while the latter questions the validity and authenticity of this mapping. However, between these seemingly irreconcilable oppositions, a more delicate and flexible philosophical thinking has quietly emerged, trying to bridge the gap and build a bridge of communication, namely moderate realism and dynamic realism.

1. Moderate realism: cautious reality mapping theory

2. Dynamic realism: the evolutionary journey of scientific knowledge

The debate between scientific realism and anti-realism is essentially different answers to the core question of how science reveals the truth about the world.

The middle ground and dynamic realism proposed inject new blood into this debate. They try to find a balance between extremes and reflect the complexity and diversity of scientific practice and theoretical understanding.

Moderate realism reminds people that scientific theories are not only tools for human beings to understand the world, but also products limited by our cognitive limitations.

Dynamic realism emphasizes the evolution and adaptability of scientific knowledge, showing the process in which the concept of reality is constantly enriched with scientific progress.

In "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions", Kuhn first proposed the concept of "paradigm". In his view, the history of science is shaped by a series of discontinuous "revolutions". These revolutions are not only the replacement of theories, but also fundamental changes in the worldview. This transformation is precisely through the rise and replacement of "paradigms" to realize

1. Definition and connotation

2. Dynamic model of scientific development

3. Consensus and guidance

4. Incommensurability

5. Changes in knowledge and perspective

Kuhn creatively depicted the stage characteristics of scientific progress, revealing the dynamic cycle from chaos to order, from stability to change.

1. Pre-paradigm science: the beginning of chaos in exploration

2. Normal science: steady progress under the paradigm

3. Scientific revolution: drastic changes in concepts and paradigm changes

4. New normal science: reborn in change

slogan

Trigger

consequences

The rapid progress of science and technology has not only greatly enriched our material and spiritual world, but also raised new topics and challenges for scientific philosophy.

1. Artificial intelligence and cognitive science: blurring and reshaping of theoretical boundaries

2. Big data and knowledge verification: cognitive dilemmas in the information age

3. Fundamentals of quantum computing and physics: challenging the limits of classical cognition

New issues in the development of science and technology are not only technical challenges, but also profound tests of human self-understanding, ethics, and philosophical foundations. Faced with these challenges, the philosophy of science needs interdisciplinary cooperation to integrate wisdom from multiple fields such as ethics, law, and cognitive science to jointly build a future picture that not only promotes scientific and technological progress but also safeguards human values.

Postmodernism challenges the inherent authority and objectivity of science and initiates a rethinking of the nature of scientific knowledge

1. Relativist stance: the social construction of knowledge

2. Criticizing the objectivity of science: subjectivity and paradigm shift

From the perspective of postmodernism, science is no longer an ivory tower isolated from society, but is embedded in a broad social and cultural context. Its development and changes need to be examined in a broader social and historical context.

Philosophy of science is gradually developing in the direction of interdisciplinary research, exploring cross-integration with neighboring fields such as natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities

1. Integrating cognitive science and philosophy of mind

2. Scientific and practical research

3. Environmental ethics and science and technology ethics

As an academic concept, “aesthetics” originally involves feeling or perception. It was formally established as an independent branch of philosophy by the German philosopher Baumgarten. Baumgarten proposed the concept of "perceptual science" for the first time, aiming to construct a discipline that systematically studies human perceptual cognition, thereby filling the gap in perceptual cognition in the philosophical system at that time.

Aesthetics not only focuses on beauty itself, but also on the value of art. The discussion goes deep into the psychological level, trying to understand the psychological mechanisms of aesthetic perception, including emotional responses, cognitive processes, and how these processes shape our aesthetic judgments and preferences.

1. Art aesthetics

2. Natural aesthetics

3. Social aesthetics

4. Design aesthetics

5. Psychology and cognitive aesthetics

6. Cross-cultural aesthetics and historical aesthetics

The nature of beauty includes both formal harmony and It also touches on the ideas and emotions deep in the soul.

1. The harmonious beauty of classicism

2. Neoplatonism and the emergence of ideas

3. British empiricist theory of pleasure

4. The unity of rationality and sensibility in German classical aesthetics

5. Criticism and truth of Russian realism

As a psychological interaction process between individuals and beautiful objects, aesthetic experience is both subjective and universal.

1. Subjectivity and individual differences

2. Universal consensus

3. Interaction between emotion and cognition

Interdisciplinary research is particularly important in contemporary aesthetics, which integrates results from multiple fields such as neuroscience, cognitive psychology, and computer science.

Theoretical construction aims to propose or improve the aesthetic theoretical system, while empirical research uses quantitative or qualitative research methods to test theoretical hypotheses. The two verify each other and promote the development and improvement of aesthetic theory.

"A Walk in Aesthetics" Zong Baihua, "Critique of Judgment" Kant, "The Origin of Works of Art" Heidegger, "Principles of Aesthetics" Spengler, "The Way of Seeing" John Berger

Ancient Greek and Roman aesthetics are the cornerstone of the Western aesthetic tradition, among which Plato's ideal beauty and Aristotle's theory of imitation constitute the two major theoretical pillars.

1. Plato’s ideal beauty

2. Aristotle’s theory of imitation

The core spirit of Renaissance aesthetics is humanism, which emphasizes human value, individual potential and the beauty of secular life, opposes the constraints of religious dogma since the Middle Ages, and rediscovers classical culture and philosophy, especially the art and humanities of ancient Greece and Rome. doctrine thought

Leonardo da Vinci was the master of humanistic aesthetics during the Renaissance. His artistic practice and theoretical thinking fully reflected the main characteristics of aesthetics during this period.

1. Integration of art and science

2. Humanistic care and individual expression

3. The harmonious beauty of nature

4. Mirror said

The Age of Enlightenment, which began from about the end of the 17th century to the 18th century, was an important ideological and cultural period in European history. It emphasized rationality and personal freedom, opposed feudal autocracy, religious prejudice and ignorance, and advocated science, progress and democracy.

1. Hume’s emotionalism

2. Kant’s Critique of Aesthetic Judgment

Kant's theory of aesthetic judgment is mainly reflected in "Critique of Judgment". As a special kind of judgment, aesthetic judgment does not belong to theoretical rationality or practical rationality, but is an independent field. It focuses on the universality and inevitability reflected by the subject in the process of experiencing beauty.

1. Non-utilitarian (qualitative provision)

2. Universality (quantitative provisions)

3. Purposeless and purposeful (relationship)

4. Transmissibility of common sense (modality)

In "Aesthetics", Hegel proposed a set of historical philosophy about the development of art. He believed that art is not only the creation of beautiful places, but also the self-consciousness and self-consciousness of absolute spirit (or "world spirit") in human history. externalization process of expression

1. Symbolic art stage

2. Classical art stage

3. Romantic art stage

The End of Art and the Transcendence of Absolute Spirit

Schelling's philosophy of art (essence, function and value)

Schopenhauer's artistic "will to live"

Kant’s non-utilitarian and universal principles inspired artists to pursue artistic creations that transcended purpose of use;

Hegel's concept of absolute spirit promotes in-depth analysis of the history of art development

Schelling and Schopenhauer's exploration of art and people's inner spiritual world provided theoretical support for later symbolism, expressionism and even modernist art.

Nietzsche believed that art is the highest expression of human spiritual freedom. It not only reflects life, but more importantly, art can shape and enhance life to a realm that transcends daily trivialities.

The practical significance of Superman aesthetics: Superman aesthetics encourages individuals to pursue a creative lifestyle, advocates breaking through traditional ethical and religious frameworks through artistic creation, and achieving the liberation of personality and the maximization of life force.

In The Origin of the Work of Art, Heidegger developed his ontological aesthetic framework, a theory that revolutionized understanding of the work of art and its role in the human experience of existence.

1. The core concept of ontological aesthetics

2. Truth in works of art

Perceptual phenomenology, as the core concept of Dufhener's aesthetic theory, advocates that the perception of works of art is a multi-dimensional and all-round process. It transcends the boundaries of a single sense and touches the human psychology, emotion and even the entire existence level.

perceptual phenomenological theory

Modern aesthetics delves into the complex relationship between art and human existence. Nietzsche emphasized art as a power to strengthen and transcend life, and the liberation of individual creativity in the idea of ​​the Superman; Heidegger focuses on how works of art reveal the truth of existence; Dufhener's perceptual phenomenology focuses on direct perceptual aesthetic experience and physical participation to connect the audience with the world.

Sensory perception and aesthetic feeling constitute the entrance to our experience of the art world and are the bridge connecting physical reality and the spiritual world.

1. Visual perception and aesthetics

2. Auditory perception and aesthetics

3. Multi-sensory integration and richness of aesthetic experience

Emotion and imagination jointly construct the complex and profound interactive relationship between people and works of art in aesthetic experience.

1. The role of emotion in aesthetics

2. The role of imagination in aesthetics

3. The interaction of emotion and imagination

1. The impact of individual differences on aesthetic experience

2. The role of cultural background

The study of aesthetics from a multicultural perspective emphasizes the coexistence of universality and particularity in aesthetics, and strives to find commonalities and possibilities for exchanges of aesthetics between different cultures while respecting the cultural differences of various ethnic groups.

1. Cross-cultural comparison

2. Globalization and localization

As a criticism and transcendence of modernist aesthetics, postmodern aesthetics represents a new mode of aesthetic thinking. It no longer seeks absolute truth or universally applicable aesthetic principles, but emphasizes the plurality, openness and constructiveness of aesthetic experience.

1. Derrida’s deconstruction

2. Foucault’s view of power and knowledge

Summarize

As an interdisciplinary aesthetic theory, the core of ecological aesthetics is to break the binary opposition between man and nature in traditional aesthetics, and instead pursue a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the beauty of the natural environment, emphasizing the integrity and integrity of the ecological system. the role of people as part of

1. Theoretical basis

2. Examples of environmental art

3. Teaching and practice

The Interweaving of Aesthetics and Culture explores the nature of beauty and the diverse manifestations of artistic experience in multicultural contexts, the challenges of postmodern theory, and the emerging perspective of ecological aesthetics. The exploration of aesthetics and culture shows the process of continuous enrichment and deepening of the understanding of beauty with the development of culture and times.

The aesthetic experience in daily life is a kind of spiritual enjoyment that is ubiquitous and runs through our every moment of perception. It transcends purely functional needs and touches the spiritual level.

1. Aesthetic experience in food

2. Aesthetic design of home environment

3. Aesthetic expression of personal clothing

4. Aesthetic discoveries during the journey

The relationship between design aesthetics and consumer culture is a striking phenomenon in the development of modern market economy. In this process, design aesthetics not only affects the appearance and function of goods, but also profoundly changes consumers' purchasing decisions, shaping new consumer trends and cultural features.

1. Design aesthetics and brand identity

2. Establishment of emotional links

3. Personalization and customization trends

4. The rise of sustainable design

The digital age has not only expanded the boundaries of aesthetics, but also proposed a profound reflection on traditional aesthetic concepts.

1. Diverse and immersive aesthetic experience

2. Aesthetic fatigue and appreciation cultivation

3. Discussion of digital art and originality

4. Balance between democratization and commercialization of art

The discussion of aesthetics revolves around core issues such as the nature of beauty, the nature of art, the structure of aesthetic experience, and the generation mechanism of aesthetic feeling. These issues touch the core of human spiritual life, so the role of aesthetics in philosophy is particularly important and diverse.

1. Characteristics of aesthetics as a branch of philosophy

2. Interdisciplinary characteristics

3. Status changes in the history of philosophy

4. Aesthetics from the perspective of aestheticism

1. Characteristics of Western aesthetics

2. Characteristics of Chinese aesthetics

3. In-depth analysis of similarities and differences