MindMap Gallery exercise physiology
Exercise physiology is a science that studies the changes in functional activities of the human body under the influence of sports from the perspective of human movement. On the basis of experiments, it studies the human body's response to acute exercise and the changes in the structure and function of the body caused by long-term exercise training. and the physiological laws that shape and develop motor skills.
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This is a mind map about bacteria, and its main contents include: overview, morphology, types, structure, reproduction, distribution, application, and expansion. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
This is a mind map about plant asexual reproduction, and its main contents include: concept, spore reproduction, vegetative reproduction, tissue culture, and buds. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
This is a mind map about the reproductive development of animals, and its main contents include: insects, frogs, birds, sexual reproduction, and asexual reproduction. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
exercise physiology
introduction
exercise physiology concepts
Physiology
Physiology is a science that uses experimental methods to study and explore the basic laws and mechanisms of life activities of biological organisms under life conditions. It is an important branch of life sciences.
human physiology
Human physiology is the science that studies the laws of normal human life activities and the physiological functions of various organ systems of the human body.
exercise physiology
It is a science that studies the changes in functional activities of the human body under the influence of sports from the perspective of human movement. On the basis of experiments, it studies the human body's response to acute exercise and the rules of changes in body structure and function caused by long-term exercise training, as well as the formation of and the physiological laws of developing motor skills.
exercise physiology tasks
It reveals the changing rules of body functions during exercise, and at the same time, provides scientific guidance for improving human health, enhancing body functions, and optimizing training effects.
The purpose of exercise physiology
In order to achieve the purpose of improving competitive technical levels, enhancing national fitness, and improving work efficiency and work quality
Basic characteristics of life activities
Metabolism
The most basic characteristic of the existence of all living organisms is the continuous destruction and removal of aging structures and the reconstruction of new structures. This is a process of self-renewal in the exchange of matter and energy between organisms and the surrounding environment. It is called metabolism, which includes assimilation and Alienation and assimilation are: the process by which organisms transform nutrients in the external environment into their own constituent substances and energy storage; Alienation is: the organism decomposes some of its own nutrients to release energy, and then converts the final products of the decomposition into the process of elimination from the body
Excitability
The ability of an organism to respond to stimuli
reproduction
After an organism reaches a certain stage of growth and development, it can produce offspring individuals similar to itself.
Irritability
Organisms live in a certain external environment. When the environment changes, the cell tissue or internal metabolism and external performance of the body will change accordingly.
Internal environment and homeostasis of the body
Internal environment
Compared with the external environment cells in which the human body lives, the external fluid is the direct environment in which cells live, also known as the internal environment.
Steady state
Within a certain range, through complex regulatory mechanisms in the body, the physical and chemical properties of the internal environment are maintained in a relatively dynamic state, which is called homeostasis.
Regulation of human physiological function activities
neuromodulation
The most basic way of neuromodulation is reflex. Reflex refers to the response of the body to internal and external environmental stimuli with the participation of the central nervous system.
body fluid regulation
Various hormones secreted by human endocrine cells are secreted into blood vessels and transported throughout the body through blood vessel circulation. They mainly regulate the body's metabolism, growth, development, reproduction and other important basic functions.
self-regulation
When the internal and external environment changes, organs, tissues, and cells can produce some kind of adaptive response independent of neural or humoral regulation.
feedback and feedforward
feedback
When regulating various physiological functions in the body, changes in the functions and activities of the regulated organs can send changing information to the regulatory system through the circuit, changing the intensity of its regulation.
Feedforward
In the control system, interference information can directly cause changes in the output effect through the action and control part of the CNC device, which has forward-looking adjustment characteristics.
Chapter 1 Muscle Activity
Section 1 Cellular Bioelectrical Phenomena
Stimulation, response and excitement
Stimulus: Environmental changes that can cause the body or cells to react, divided into physical, chemical and biological stimuli
Response: changes in functional activity of the body or cells after being stimulated
Local reaction: Cells are subject to subthreshold stimulation, and the local depolarization generated on the cell membrane cannot spread to distant locations, so it is called a local reaction.
Stimuli that can cause a response usually meet the following three conditions:
a certain intensity
certain duration
certain intensity change rate
Three conditions interact with each other. If the value of one or two conditions changes, the values of other conditions will also change.
excitement and excitability
Excitation: It is a reaction in which physiological functions are enhanced after the organs, tissues or cells of an organism are stimulated by a strong enough stimulus.
Excitable cells: In the body, neuromuscular and endocrine gland cells can generate propagable action potentials under the action of stimulation.
Excitability: refers to the ability or characteristic of the body to respond to excitement after experiencing stimulation. It is generated on the basis of metabolism and is one of the basic characteristics of the body's life activities.
Cell bioelectric activity
resting potential
The concept is: Resting potential refers to the potential difference that exists on both sides of the membrane when the cell is not stimulated. Because this potential difference exists on both sides of the quiet cell membrane, it is also called transmembrane resting potential or membrane potential.
Polarization: When the cell is in a resting state, the membrane potential is in a normal value of positive outside and negative inside.
Depolarization: refers to the process in which the negative value of the potential within the membrane is reduced compared with the resting potential, that is, the polarization state is weakened
Hyperpolarization: refers to the negative value of the potential within the membrane, which is called the resting potential. It is a process of increasing, that is, the polarization state is strengthened.
Repolarization: The process by which cells return to their original polarized state after depolarization.
The formation mechanism of resting potential
P12
Action potential
Action potential refers to a rapid and short-lived potential fluctuation that occurs on the cell membrane based on the original resting potential when a cell is stimulated and excited, and can spread to the surroundings.
The mechanism of action potential formation
Ascending branch
When cells are stimulated and excited, a large number of Na+ channels open, and the membrane's permeability to Na+ suddenly increases and exceeds the permeability to K+, so the extracellular Na+ quickly flows in along the concentration difference and potential difference. Causes the potential within the membrane to rise sharply, and the negative potential within the membrane quickly disappears and turns to positive potential
descending branch
When the membrane depolarization reaches its peak, the Na+ vagina is quickly inactivated and closed. At this time, the membrane's permeability to K+ increases, so the K+ in the membrane diffuses outward along the concentration difference and potential difference, causing the potential in the membrane to drop rapidly. until the membrane repolarizes to the resting potential level
repolarization
The permeability of the membrane to K➕ returns to normal, and the inactivation state of the Na➕ channel is lifted and returned to the activable state.
Characteristics of action potential
all or nothing phenomenon
There is an absolute refractory period
conduction of action potential
Conduction: The action potential generated anywhere will spread along the entire cell membrane
Nerve impulse: an action potential that is a pulse-like spike that is conducted along a nerve fiber
Usually has the following characteristics, physiological integrity, two-way conduction, non-attenuation and relatively non-fatigue, insulation
Section 2 Principles of Muscle Contraction
microstructure of muscles
Sarcomere
It is a section of myofibril between two adjacent z lines, which includes a dark band in the middle and 1/2 bright bands on both sides.
Hengqiao
Meaning: The globular heads of the myosin molecules that make up the thick myofilaments protrude regularly, and the thick myofilaments on both sides of the m line form the bulges on the stem surface.
Functional characteristics: First, it has a site that can bind to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and at the same time, it has ATPase activity, but this enzyme is only activated when the cross bridge is connected to the thin myofilament; second, it is active under a certain Under certain conditions, the cross bridge can reversibly combine with the corresponding site of the thin myofilament, and appear to tilt and swing, pulling the thin myofilament to slide towards the middle of the thick myofilament.
Muscle contractile proteins: During muscle contraction and relaxation, proteins related to the sliding of myofilaments are called muscle contractile proteins, including myosin and actin
Muscle regulatory proteins: tropomyosin and troponin regulate myofilament sliding
myotubular system
Refers to the membranous sac-tubular structure surrounding each myofibril. They are actually composed of two independent tube systems with different functions.
Triple tube
Each horizontal tube and the final pool of its two adjacent intermediate tubes are collectively called a triple tube.
Muscle contraction and relaxation process
Transmission of excitement at neuromuscular junctions
Nerve-muscle junction: The nerve endings lose their myelin sheath before the muscle fibers contact, and then the exposed endings are embedded in the muscle membrane, which is called the midplate mold in the depression, forming the so-called psychomuscular junction.
The specific process of transmission of excitement at the nerve-muscle junction
When a motor neuron is excited, the nerve impulse is transmitted along the motor nerve fiber to the axon terminal and stimulates the presynaptic membrane
The vesicle fuses with the presynaptic membrane and ACH is released into the synaptic cleft, and then immediately binds to the ACH receptor on the postsynaptic membrane, causing changes in the permeability of Na➕ and K➕ plasma in the postsynaptic membrane. Depolarization occurs and the end plate potential is formed.
Since there is a large amount of cholinesterase in the synaptic cleft and on the end plate membrane, the ACH released from the axon terminal in each impulse can be completely hydrolyzed and inactivated within 2 ms, thus maintaining the nerve-muscle function. The contact will have normal transmission function next time
Characteristics of transmission of excitement at nerve-muscle junctions
chemical transfer
The excitatory transfer rhythm is 1 to 1
One way delivery
time delay
High sensitivity
Muscle excitation-contraction coupling
The excitation process of muscle cells is characterized by the electrical change of the membrane, while the contraction process of muscle cells is based on the mechanical changes of their fibers. They have different physiological mechanisms. There must be some kind of intermediary process during muscle contraction, which separates them. This intermediary process is called muscle excitation-contraction coupling.
There are three main steps. The first is electrical excitation, which is transmitted deep into the muscle cells through the transverse tube system and the information transmission at the 23-year tube structure. The third is the release of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Muscle contraction and relaxation process
Myofilament sliding theory
When a muscle contracts, although the entire muscle or muscle fiber can be seen to shorten in appearance, there is no shortening or curling of the myofilaments or the molecular structures they contain within the muscle cells, but only occurs between the thin myofilaments in each sarcomere. Sliding, the length of the bright band shortens, while the length of the dark band remains unchanged, the H zone becomes narrower, and the thin muscle filaments emanating from the Z line actively move toward the center of the dark band under the action of a certain force, resulting in an adjacent Z The lines are close to each other, and the length of the sarcomere becomes shorter, causing the length of the entire myofibrils, muscle cells, and even the entire muscle to shorten.
Muscle contractility
The intrinsic functional state of the muscle that does not depend on preload and afterload and can affect the muscle contraction effect is called muscle contractility.
Preload refers to the load applied to a muscle before it contracts.
Afterload refers to the load or resistance encountered when a muscle begins to contract
Section 3: Forms and Mechanical Characteristics of Muscle Contraction
form of muscle contraction
shortening contraction
It refers to a form of contraction in which when the tension generated by muscle contraction is greater than the external resistance, the muscle shortens and pulls the bone lever to make corresponding movements. During shortening and contraction, the starting and ending points of the muscles are close to each other, which is also called concentric contraction.
elongation and contraction
It refers to a form of contraction in which the muscle contracts actively but is stretched when the tension generated by muscle contraction is less than the external resistance. When the contraction is stretched, the starting and ending points of the muscle are separated, also known as eccentric contraction.
Isometric contraction
It refers to a form of contraction in which the muscles overcome a constant sideline. It is customarily called isotonic contraction.
Mechanical characteristics of muscle contraction
The relationship between tension and speed of muscle contraction
The tension speed curve shows that within a certain range, the tension generated by muscle contraction is roughly inversely proportional to the speed. When the load increases to a certain value, the tension can reach the maximum, but the contraction speed is zero, and the muscle can only be isotonic. Contraction, when the afterload is zero, the tension is theoretically zero and the muscle contraction speed reaches its maximum
The relationship between muscle contraction length and tension
Initially increasing the initial length of muscle contraction, the tension generated during muscle contraction increases, but when the initial length increases and exceeds a certain length, the tension decreases instead.
Section 4 Muscle Fiber Types and Movement Ability
muscle fiber type
Label the results of classifying skeletal muscles based on their morphological, structural and functional characteristics.
Divided into fast twitch and slow twitch
fast movement unit
A large motor neuron together with the fast-twitch muscle fibers or I-type muscle fibers it innervates is called a slow motor unit
slow motor unit
A small motor neuron connects the slow-twitch muscle fibers it innervates, or ∏-type muscle fibers, called a slow motor unit
The relationship between muscle fiber types and exercise
Motor unit recruitment
During exercise, the order and degree of participation of different types of motor units in activities
Effects of exercise training on skeletal muscle fibers
Effects of exercise training on skeletal muscle fiber type percentage composition
Impulse activity is not the only factor that determines muscle fiber type. Muscle fiber type may be further related to the presence and action of motor nerve trophic factors.
Effect of exercise training on muscle fiber area
It can strengthen skeletal muscle tissue and improve muscle function. Different forms of exercise training can preferentially cause the hypertrophy of certain types of muscle fibers in the ribs of the main movement muscles. This phenomenon is called the selective hypertrophy of muscle fibers and the tendency to decrease. It is believed that The reduction in the area of slow-twitch muscle fibers and the proliferation of capillaries are conducive to shortening the diffusion distance of muscles and facilitating oxygen transportation, which are manifestations of endurance training adaptation.
Effects of exercise training on muscle fiber metabolic characteristics
Effects of exercise training on aerobic capacity of muscle fibers
It not only significantly increases the activity of succinate dehydrogenase in slow muscle fibers, but also significantly increases the activity of this enzyme in the fibers, indicating that both types of muscle fibers have the adaptability to increase oxidative power.
Effects of exercise training on the anaerobic capacity of muscle fibers
The body's anaerobic capacity can change depending on the sport or the type of training received
Specificity of the effects of exercise training on muscle fibers
Section 5 Electromyography
It refers to the voltage change diagram obtained by guiding, amplifying and recording the electrical changes when the muscles are excited by guiding the motor.
Application, one is the coordination evaluation of muscle activities
The second is the evaluation of local muscle fatigue
The third is to predict muscle fiber type
Chapter 2 Energy Metabolism
Energy metabolism refers to the storage, release, transfer and utilization of energy accompanying the substance metabolism process in organisms.
Section 1: Human Energy Supply
ATP: is a high-energy phosphate compound rich in high-energy bonds. It is a direct energy source that can be used by various organs, tissues and cells of the body.
ATP homeostasis: the phenomenon whereby cellular tissues and even organ systems maintain a constant content of ATP during energy conversion.
ATP generation process
phosphagen system
Meaning, since ATP and CP contain high-energy phosphate bonds, this instantaneous energy supply system is called the phosphagen system or ATP-CP system.
Does not require the participation of oxygen, the time is less than ten seconds
glycolytic system
It refers to the energy supply system that regenerates ATP during the anaerobic decomposition of glycogen or glucose. Since this system generates lactic acid during its function, it is also called the lactate energy system.
No oxygen is required, the time is about 30 seconds
aerobic oxidation system
It refers to the energy supply system that synthesizes ATP during the complete oxidation of sugar, fat and protein into H2o and Co2 under the condition of sufficient nutrition. This system is the main energy acquisition method for most cells in the body.
It requires the participation of oxygen and takes about 30 minutes to an hour.
Anaerobic fast energy system
Neither the phosphagen system nor the glycolysis system participates in the metabolic process, so these two functional systems are collectively called the anaerobic energy supply system.
Section 2 Determination of Human Energy Metabolism
test methods
Thermal value of food: The heat generated when one gram of food is oxidized is called the thermal value of food.
Physical heat price, the amount of heat released when one gram of food is completely burned outside the body
Biothermal price, the amount of heat produced when one gram of food is oxidized in the body
Oxygen heat price: the heat generated by consuming 1 liter of oxygen when a certain food is oxidized
Respiratory quotient: The ratio of the body's CO2 production and oxygen consumption at the same time is called respiratory quotient.
When the respiratory quotient is greater than one, for example, during strenuous exercise, due to insufficient oxygen supply, a large amount of lactic acid is produced, and while acting on the blood buffering system, a large amount of CO2 will be excreted from the body. At this time, the respiratory quotient will be greater than 1
Factors affecting energy metabolism
muscle activity
ambient temperature
When the ambient temperature is below 20 degrees Celsius, the metabolic rate begins to increase. Below 10 degrees Celsius, the metabolic rate increases significantly. When the ambient temperature is 30 to 45 degrees Celsius, the metabolic rate gradually increases again.
Special dynamic effects of food
After ingesting food in a quiet state, the body releases more heat than the heat produced by the oxidation of the ingested food itself.
mental and emotional activities
other factors
basal metabolism
Basal metabolism and basal metabolic rate
Basal metabolism refers to the energy metabolism of the human body in a quiet state in the morning when it is not affected by factors such as mental stress, muscle activity, food, and environmental temperature.
Basal metabolic rate refers to the basal metabolism per unit time
The status of the basal metabolic rate, the first is fasting in the morning, the second is to keep the room temperature at 20 to 25 degrees Celsius, the third is to avoid strenuous activities and rest for about 30 minutes before the measurement, and the fourth is to require the subject to eliminate tension. Anxiety, fear, etc., excluding the influence of mental stress, the fifth is that the subject's body temperature is normal
Section 3 Energy metabolism during exercise
Energy metabolism response to acute exercise
Anaerobic metabolism during acute exercise
The energy at the beginning of acute exercise mainly comes from the decomposition of ATP and CP. ATP is rapidly hydrolyzed into ATP and Pi under the catalysis of ATPase. Dpg serves as a common substrate for CP and is rapidly resynthesized into ATP under the catalysis of its acid kinase. The cleavage rate of CP used by skeletal muscles to resynthesize ATP is extremely fast, so the phosphate energy supply system can provide greater power output than the other two energy supply systems. Since this process does not require the participation of oxygen when decomposing at pcp, it also Lactic acid is not produced, so it is also called the non-lactic acid component of anaerobic metabolism. If the exercise maintains sufficient intensity and continues, then the glycolytic energy supply system will gradually occupy the dominant position in energy supply. At this time, the decomposition products of ATP AD accepts the high-energy phosphate bonds generated by the incomplete cleavage of glycogen or glucose and re-synthesizes ATP while producing a large amount of lactic acid. The lactate level of exercise skeletal muscle cells increases rapidly and continuously, causing a significant decrease in cell pH. The body will soon become fatigued and cannot maintain long-term Time movement energy needs
Aerobic metabolism during acute exercise
Aerobic metabolism, called phosphate and glycolysis energy supply systems, have more complex chemical processes, and their chemical processes also involve relatively more cellular reactions. Therefore, the power output is relatively lowest, and compared with anaerobic metabolism, it can provide a greater energy supply. The total amount and the duration of exercise are greatly extended. During the energy supply process, glycogen, glucose or fatty acids are completely oxidized and decomposed, and the amount of ATP synthesized is about 20 to 30 times that of anaerobic glycolysis until the maximum oxygen uptake plateau appears. , and during extreme intensity exercise, the oxygen uptake kinetic curve will not appear a plateau, but will continue to increase until exercise fatigue occurs. The oxygen uptake level reaches or fails to reach the maximum oxygen uptake.
Integration of energy metabolism during acute exercise
Generally speaking, depending on the exercise mode, exercise duration and intensity, the three energy supply systems all participate in energy supply, but their proportions in the overall energy supply are different.
Adaptation of energy metabolism to chronic exercise
In addition to energy substance reserves, aerobic metabolism and anaerobic metabolism capacity are also important factors. The regulation ability of energy metabolism and the metabolic ability of the recovery process after exercise are also important factors. Chronic exercise mainly affects the latter two. Generally speaking, chronic exercise can Upregulates the activity of enzymes involved in the main energy metabolism and energy supply system, making acute exercise more sensitive to the regulation of neurohormones. When the internal environment changes, the functions of various organ systems are more coordinated. At the same time, it accelerates the recovery of energy, substances, and various metabolic regulation systems. Elimination of fatigue. For example, athletes who have received endurance training for a long time have higher aerobic exercise capacity than athletes who have received speed training for a long time, but their anaerobic endurance is significantly lower than the latter.
exercise or energy saving
Long-term exercise training can keep the maximum oxygen uptake in a stable state
Detection and evaluation of energy metabolism related to exercise
The classic method to evaluate the function of the glycolytic system is the Wingate test.
It refers to the subject's continuous exercise at maximum capacity within 30 to 90 seconds under a specific exercise resistance to measure the subject's workload and blood lactate value increase. The greater the maximum amount and blood lactate value increase, the greater the anaerobic glycolysis. The stronger the ability
Chapter 3 Regulatory Function of the Nervous System
The nervous system is usually divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
Section 1 Cells that make up the nervous system and their general functions
The nervous system is mainly composed of nerve cells and glial cells Axial hillock: The enlarged cone-shaped part emanating from the cell body is called the axonal hillock, which is the initial segment of the axon.
1. Neuron
Divided into two parts: cell body and process
Structure: The cell body is the main body of the neuron, and its parts are round, heart-shaped, and spindle-shaped. The inclusion body is composed of three parts: cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. The protrusion can be regarded as an extension of the inclusion body, which is divided into dendrites and axons. , its function is to receive impulses from other neurons. The main function of the axon is to transmit the impulses generated in the inclusion body to other neurons, or to effectors such as muscle cells and gland cells.
Divided into three types: afferent nerves (sensory nerves), efferent nerves (motor nerves) and intermediate nerves (connection neurons)
The main function
1. A neuron can be divided into several functional areas The plasma membrane of neurons plays an important role in receiving information. There is a protein synthesis system in the nucleus and cytoplasm of neurons. Various functional proteins required by neurons are synthesized here. They play an important role in maintaining the growth, development, survival and completion of neurons. It plays an irreplaceable role in normal functional activities. The cell body and dendrites are the areas that receive and integrate information. The initial segment of the axon is the area that generates action potentials, and the synaptic terminal transmits information from one neuron to another. A region of neurons or effector cells. The main function of neurons is to receive stimuli and transmit information. Some neurons also secrete hormones that convert nerve signals into body fluid signals.
2. Nerve fibers have the functions of excitation conduction and axoplasmic transport. Axoplasmic transport: The axis of nerve fibers will always be in a flowing state, and axoplasmic flow has the function of transporting substances. Nerve fibers refer to the axon of a neuron and the myelin sheath surrounding the axon. Nerve fibers conduct excitement and have the following characteristics: ① integrity ② insulation ③ bidirectional type ④ relatively fatigue-free
3. Neurotrophic effect In addition to regulating the tissues they control, nerve endings often release some nutritional factors, which continuously regulate the metabolic activities of the tissues they control and affect their structure, biochemistry and physiological functions. This role of nerves is called nutritional role.
2. Glial cells
Contains three types of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia
Function: ① Astrocytes mainly play a supporting role, guide migration, nutritional role, and isolation role ②The main function of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells is to form nerve fiber myelin sheaths in the center and periphery respectively. Myelin sheaths have the function of increasing nerve conduction speed and insulating. ③Function of microglia and satellite cells: Microglia can work with monocytes from the blood to clear degenerated nerve tissue debris. Satellite cells may provide nutrition and morphological support for neurons and regulate the external environment of neurons. chemical environment
Section 2 Basic principles of functional activities of the nervous system (Referred to as nerve conduction, its conduction is conducted by local electric current - unmyelinated fibers Jump conduction-myelinated fibers)
1. Synaptic transmission
The meaning is that information is transferred from the previous neuron to the following neuron. This information transfer process is called salient transfer. Synapse: The contact between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector that connects each other in physiology Synaptosome: On the main axon, the end of the axon is divided into many branches, and the enlarged part at the end of each branch
chemical synapse
The information transmission medium is the synapse of neurotransmitter. At the electrical synapse, the distance between the two neurons in close contact is 2 to 3 cm. The cell membrane at the connection site is not thickened, and the cytoplasm near both sides of the membrane is not thick. There are synaptic vesicles, and there are channel proteins on the membranes on both sides that communicate with the cytoplasm. This structure is also called a gap junction.
electrical synapse
The information transmission medium is the synapse of local current. The chemical synapse is composed of the presynaptic membrane, the postsynaptic membrane and the synaptic cleft. It has one-way propagation, central delay, post-release, and total accumulation of excitement. Excitatory rhythm changes in response to changes in the internal environment. Sensitive and fatigue-prone characteristics
the main form
The process of information transmission at chemical synapses mainly includes neurotransmitters, the synthesis and release of neurotransmitters at the presynaptic stage, the binding of neurotransmitters to postsynaptic membrane receptors, and the decomposition or reabsorption of neurotransmitters.
postsynaptic potential
Excitatory postsynaptic potential: If the postsynaptic membrane is depolarized under the action of a transmitter, the excitability of the postsynaptic neuron increases.
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential: If the presynaptic membrane releases inhibitory transmitters, it can cause an increase in the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to K+ and Cl-, especially cl-, leading to superization of the postsynaptic membrane.
The important role of electrical synaptic transmission in synchronized neuronal activity
The physiological significance is that it can cause synchronized activities of many neurons, can tolerate drugs that block chemical transmission, and is not sensitive to temperature changes.
2. Basic rules of reflex activities
①The activity form and integration method of reflection
Reflex: Various receptors in the body are equivalent to different transducers. Their function is to convert the stimulus they feel into a certain form of nerve discharge signal. The latter is transmitted to the corresponding nerve center through the afferent nerve fiber, and the nerve discharge signal is transmitted to the corresponding nerve center. After analyzing and reacting to the incoming signals, the central instructions are conveyed to the corresponding effector organs through efferent nerve fibers, initiating or changing their activities. This process is called a reflex.
Unconditioned reflexes: refers to reflex activities that humans and animals are born with, limited in number, species-specific, relatively fixed and low-level in form, such as defensive reflexes, food reflexes, sexual reflexes, etc.
Conditioned reflex: It is an advanced form of reflex activity. It refers to a reflex activity formed by people and animals in the course of their individual lives, based on their living environment, on the basis of unconditioned reflex, and through acquired learning and training.
The basic process is that stimulation information is transmitted to the nerve center through receptors, and is transmitted sequentially to efferent nerves and effectors. The center is the most complex part of the reflex arc.
②Contact information of central neurons
a. Single-line connection: refers to a presynaptic neuron having synaptic contact with only one postsynaptic neuron.
b. Radial connection: refers to a neuron that can form synaptic connections with multiple neurons through its axon terminals, thereby excitating or inhibiting many neurons connected to it at the same time.
c. Aggregated connection: refers to a neuron receiving axon terminals from many neurons to establish a synaptic connection. Therefore, it is possible for excitation or inhibition from different neurons to be integrated on the same neuron, resulting in subsequent excitable or inhibited
d. Chain and ring connections: Between interneurons, the connection mode formed due to the simultaneous existence of divergent and convergent connections is a chain or ring connection.
③Characteristics of central excitation in chemical synaptic transmission
a. One-way communication
In reflex activities, excitation is transmitted through chemical synapses and can only be transmitted from presynaptic terminals to postsynaptic neurons.
b. Central delay
The time required for the transmission of excitatory central chemical synapses is much longer than the conduction along nerve fibers at the same distance.
c.The sum of excitement
In reflex activities, the incoming impulses from a single nerve fiber generally cannot cause efferent effects. For example, the outgoing impulses from several nerve fibers reach the same terminal at the same time, which may cause efferent effects.
d. Changes in excitement rhythm
In the same reflex arc, the firing frequency of excitatory transmission in afferent nerves (presynaptic neurons) is often different from that of efferent nerves (postsynaptic neurons).
e.Issued later
Excitatory impulses are connected through the ring. Even after the initial stimulation has stopped, the firing of impulses in the efferent pathway can continue for some time.
f. Sensitive to changes in internal environment and prone to fatigue
Changes in physical and chemical factors in the internal environment, such as hypoxia, excess carbon dioxide, and interference with certain drugs, can affect chemical synaptic transmission. This is because the synaptic cleft is connected to the extracellular fluid.
④General inhibition and facilitation of central activity
Post-synaptic inhibition: using inhibitory interneurons to release neurotransmitters, causing IPSP-induced inhibition of postsynaptic membrane neurons
afferent collateral or reciprocal inhibition
After the afferent nerve enters the center, on the one hand, it excites a central neuron through synaptic connections; on the other hand, it excites an inhibitory interneuron through collateral branches, and through the activity of the latter, it inhibits another central neuron. reciprocal inhibition
regression inhibition
When a central neuron is excited, the efferent nerve transmits along the axon and at the same time excites an inhibitory interneuron through the axon collaterals. The latter releases inhibitory neurotransmitters, which in turn inhibits the originally excited neuron and the same central neuron. of other neurons, this inhibition is called retrograde inhibition
Presynaptic inhibition The inhibition produced in the presynaptic membrane is called presynaptic inhibition. This kind of inhibition exists widely in the central nervous system, especially in the sensory afferent pathways, and is of great significance in regulating sensory afferent activities.
postsynaptic facilitation
Due to depolarization of the membrane after protrusion, the membrane potential is close to the threshold potential level
presynaptic facilitation
As the action potential duration of the presynaptic axon terminal is prolonged, the neurotransmitter released from the terminal increases, which ultimately increases the EPSP of the postsynaptic and membrane neuron, resulting in presynaptic facilitation.
Section 3: Sensory Analysis Function of the Nervous System
1. Receptor
Meaning: On the body surface or inside the tissues of humans and animals, there are some structural devices called receptors that are specially formed to sense the stimulation of environmental changes inside and outside the body.
General physiological characteristics of receptors
① Suitable stimulation
A receptor is usually most sensitive to a specific form of energy change. This form of stimulation is called the appropriate stimulus for the receptor.
②Energy conversion function
Various receptors can convert various forms of stimulation energy acting on them into action potentials of afferent nerves. This energy conversion is called the transduction effect of the receptors.
③Encoding function
When the receptor converts external stimulation into nerve action potentials, it not only converts energy, but also transfers the information about environmental changes contained in the stimulus into the sequence of action potentials, which plays the role of information transfer. This is the function of the receptor. Coding function
④Adaptation phenomenon
When a stimulus of a constant intensity is maintained on a receptor, the frequency of action potentials on the sensory nerve fibers will gradually decrease. This phenomenon is called receptor adaptation.
Receptive field: refers to the spatial range composed of all receptors that can affect neuron activity.
2. Sensory functions of the body and internal organs
proprioceptor Muscle spindles, tendon organs and joint receptors located in muscles, tendons and joints are called proprioceptors
Muscle spindle: It is a special sensing device in skeletal muscles, located deep in the muscle. It is mainly composed of intrafusal muscles, nerve endings, spindle bursae and tiny blood vessels. Muscle spindles are proprioceptors that sense the length, direction, speed and rate of change of skeletal muscles.
Tendon organ: It is a sac-like structure located at the junction of skeletal muscles and tendons. It is arranged in series with skeletal muscles. It is a proprioceptor that senses the intensity of skeletal muscle tension.
Law of Specific Nervous Energy
When stimulation occurs in a specific sensory neural pathway, no matter how the activity of the pathway is caused, or which part of the pathway is generated, the sensation caused is always caused by the physiological excitement of the receptor. feeling, this principle is called the law of specific nerve energy
somatosensory representative area
It means that the somatosensory information carried from the thalamus is projected to specific areas of the cerebral cortex through a specific projection system, mainly including the surface sensory area and the proprioceptive area.
somatic sensation
Deep sensations from skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, etc. and superficial sensations from the skin combine to form somatic sensations.
touch-pressure
It is the feeling caused by mechanical stimulation such as touch pressure on the skin. The two are similar in nature and can be collectively called touch-pressure sensation.
Two point discrimination threshold
When two point-like stimuli touch the skin at the same time or one after another, the minimum distance at which the human body can distinguish the two stimulus points is called the two-point discrimination threshold.
tactile threshold
Minimum pressure line depth that induces touch-pressure sensation
3. Visual function of the eye
The process of vision formation
The light that enters the eye passes through four media with different refractive indexes, the corneal lens and the vitreous body, and passes through the lens on the front and back surfaces of the cornea. The four refractive surfaces with different refractive powers on the front and back surfaces can form an object image on the retina.
photosensitive transducer system
The retina contains rods and cones that are highly sensitive to light. They, together with the associated bipolar cells and optic ganglion cells, constitute the two photosensitive transduction systems of the eye, namely the rod system and the optic cone system.
Shortsighted
Due to the long path between the front and back of the eyeball or the refractive power of the refractive system is too strong, the light emitted by distant objects is concentrated in front of the retina, forming a blurred image, which is called myopia.
Farsightedness
Because the front and back passage of the eyeball is short or the refractive power of the refractive system is too weak, the light emitted by distant objects is focused behind the retina, forming a blurred image, which is called hyperopia.
4. Hearing function of the ear
vestibular organ
It is composed of the utricle, saccule and three semicircular canals of the inner ear. It is the receptor for the human body to sense its own posture, movement status and the position of the head in space. It plays an important role in maintaining the balance of the body.
vestibular response
When the vestibular receptors of the human body are over-stimulated, they reflexively cause changes in skeletal muscle tone, nystagmus, and autonomic functional reactions, such as increased heart rate, decreased blood pressure, nausea and vomiting, dizziness, and cold sweats. These changes are collectively referred to as vestibular reactions.
vestibular function stability
The degree to which the body's various vestibular reactions are caused by excessive stimulation of vestibular receptors is called vestibular function stability.
Nervous system regulation of posture and movement
motor unit
An alpha motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates form a motor unit
motor neuron pool
A skeletal muscle usually receives innervation from many motor neurons. These neurons are relatively concentrated within a few millimeters of the brainstem or the anterior horn of adjacent segments of the spinal cord. Therefore, the group of motor neurons that will innervate a muscle is relatively concentrated in the area. motor neuron pool
reflex movement
It refers to movements that are not controlled by subjective consciousness, have fixed movement forms, and have quick responses, such as rapid retraction of limbs caused by noxious stimulation, tendon reactions, and eye gaze, etc.
formal movement
It refers to the subjective consciousness that controls the start and end of movement, and most of the movement can be completed automatically. The form of this type of movement is fixed, rhythmic and continuous, such as walking, running, chewing and breathing, etc.
intentional movement
It means that the movement has a clear purpose and the whole process of movement is controlled by subjective consciousness. The form of movement is relatively complex and is generally acquired through acquired learning. With the accumulation of practical experience, the movement skills are gradually improved.
Central adjustment of posture
Adjustment of spinal posture
Stretch reflex: When a skeletal muscle is stretched by an external force when the spinal cord is intact, it can reflexively cause the same stretched muscle to contract.
Dynamic stretch reflex: also known as tendon reflex, is caused by rapid muscle stretching. Its function is to resist muscle elongation. It is characterized by a short duration, large muscle force, and a phased contraction.
static stretch reflex
Also known as muscle tension, it is formed when muscles are slowly and continuously stretched. The tension of the muscles must be adjusted without showing obvious movements, but it is very important for maintaining body posture.
Flexor reflex: When vertebrates are subjected to noxious stimulation, the flexor muscles of the stimulated limb joints contract rapidly, while the extensor muscles are slow. The flexion of the limb is called the flexor reflex.
Contralateral extensor reflex: On the basis of flexion of the stimulated ipsilateral limb, increasing the stimulation intensity will cause extension of the contralateral limb.
Brainstem regulation of muscle tone and posture
brainstem reticular formation
In the central part of the brainstem, there are many old areas composed of neurons of different shapes and sizes, with various types of nerve fibers running through them in a network.
state reflection
Changes in the spatial position of the head and changes in the relative position of the head and trunk will reflexively cause changes in muscle tone in the trunk and limbs.
righting reflex
When people and animals are in abnormal positions, they use a series of coordinated movements to return their positions to normal reflex activities.
labyrinth tonic reflex
Refers to the adjustment reflex of the incoming impulses of the otolith organ of the inner ear labyrinth to the tension of the body extensor muscles when the spatial position of the head changes.
neck tonic reflex
It refers to the adjustment reflex of the muscle tension in the limbs after the cervical joint ligaments and neck muscles are stimulated when the neck is twisted.
organizing principles
The cells that send out descending control fibers in the motor cortex are highly organized in regions. Cortical neurons related to each muscle have a gathering center and surrounding outer fields. Any central area that controls different muscles will not overlap, but a chicken's The outer field control area may overlap with the outer field of another muscle, or even its central area. This distribution pattern is called the organizing principle of neurons in the cortical motor area.
Chapter 4 Endocrine Regulation
Section 1 Endocrinology and Hormones
Endocrinology and Hormones
endocrine
It refers to a form of secretion in which endocrine cells secrete the hormones produced directly into body fluids and use body fluids as a medium to produce effects on target cells.
Endocrine System
It is composed of classic endocrine glands and endocrine cells distributed in functional organs and tissues. It is a system that releases information to regulate body functions.
hormone
type
Nitrogenous hormone
Steroids
lipid derivatives
Delivery method
Remote secretion: After hormones are secreted into the blood, they are transported to distant target organs or cells through the blood circulation to exert their effects.
Paracrine: Hormone diffuses through interstitial fluid to act on other nearby target cells
Autocrine: The hormone acts on the cells that produce the hormone. It may not even be released and can act directly in the cells that synthesize the hormone. The latter is also called endocrine or intracellular secretion.
Neurosecretion: Neuroendocrine cells release hormones into the blood circulation to function
Luminal secretion: hormones are released directly into the lumen of the body to exert their effects
The regulatory effect of hormones on body functions
Integrate body homeostasis
Regulate metabolism
Maintain growth and development
Regulate reproductive process
General characteristics of hormone action
Messenger role (delivering information)
It can transmit certain information released by endocrine cells to target cells, regulate the function of target cells, and enhance or weaken the body's metabolic process.
Highly effective (a highly effective bioactive substance)
Specific action (specificity of hormone action)
Only selectively acts on recognized target cells
Interaction (synergy, antagonism, permissive effect)
The hormones they secrete are all spread through body fluids, and are connected with each other to form a unity. The effects of each hormone are related to each other, influence each other, and are intricate.
Mechanism of action of hormones
target cell hormone receptor
Receptors refer to special biomolecules located on the cell membrane or within the cell that can specifically bind to certain chemical substances (such as transmitters, modulators, hormones, etc.) and induce specific biological effects.
cell membrane receptor
intracellular receptor
Cell membrane receptor-mediated hormone action mechanism
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate on the cell membrane is called the second messenger
① The hormone first messenger carrying regulatory information binds to the specific receptor on the target cell membrane
② After the hormone binds to the receptor, the hormone receptor activates the intramembrane glycolate cyclase through G protein. In the presence of Mg2+, AC catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cAMP.
③cAMP serves as the second messenger and continues to activate functional proteins such as inactive protein kinases in the cytoplasm step by step
④Promote the phosphorylation of many specific proteins in cells
⑤Ultimately causing target cells to produce various physiological effects
Steroid hormone mechanism of action (genomic effects)
① Hormones directly penetrate the cell membrane into the cytoplasm and combine with specific receptors in the cytoplasm to form hormone receptor complexes
②In the presence of Ca2, the complex undergoes allosteric transformation and enters the nucleus
③ Combine with nuclear receptors to form hormone-nuclear receptor complex
④Promote the DNA transcription process and promote or inhibit the formation of mRNA
⑤Induce or reduce the production of new proteins (mainly enzymes) to achieve various biological effects
Meaning: A high-efficiency bioactive substance that is transported from the gold body fluid secreted by endocrine glands or scattered endocrine cells to a certain organ or tissue to exert its specific regulatory effect.
Section 2 Functions of the Main Endocrine Glands
endocrine function axis
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis (stress axis)
Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis (growth axis)
Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (reproductive axis)
Function
hypothalamus and pituitary gland
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is the advanced neuro-endocrine regulatory center of the human body. It is also the confluence and conversion station of neuroregulation and humoral regulation.
Type: ① Excitatory hormones ② Inhibitory hormones
pituitary
Including adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis
The adenohypophysis plays a regulatory role in physiological processes such as material metabolism, individual growth, breast development and lactation, and melanin metabolism.
Neurohypophysis: The neurohypophysis cannot synthesize hormones. It is only the site where vasopressin and oxytocin synthesized by hypothalamic neurons are stored and released. It is an important hormone that regulates the body's water and salt balance.
Thyroid and parathyroid glands
thyroid
Physiological effects
Promote growth and development
Regulate metabolism
Affects organ system function
Endocrine functions of parathyroid glands
Enhance osteoclast activity and inhibit osteoblast activity
Promote calcium reabsorption in the renal distal tubule and inhibit phosphate reabsorption in the proximal tubule
Promotes the conversion of vitamin D3 into its active form
adrenal gland
Composed of two parts: outer cortex and central medulla
Endocrine functions of the adrenal cortex
Zona glomerulosa:mineralocorticoids
Function: Promote the reabsorption of Na + and water and the excretion of K + by the renal distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts. It is an important hormone for maintaining the body's water and salt balance. If secretion is reduced, during long-term exercise, it can lead to severe dehydration and metabolic syndrome. acidosis
Endocrine functions of the adrenal medulla
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and opioid peptides
Emergency response: When the body encounters an emergency, such as severe pain, hypoxia, dehydration, massive bleeding, fear and strenuous exercise
Zona fasciculata:glucocorticoids
Mainly cortisol, followed by corticosterone, plays a role in substance metabolism, ① participates in sugar metabolism, ② participates in protein metabolism, ③ participates in fat metabolism
It plays a role in stress response. When the body is suddenly subjected to different stimuli such as trauma, surgical freezing, hunger, pain, infection, panic and strenuous exercise, a sharp increase in the concentration of adrenocorticotropic hormone in the blood and a decrease in glucocorticoids can occur. A large amount of secretion is called a stress response
Effect on water and salt metabolism: water intoxication
Zona reticularis: sex hormones
stress response and emergency response
Their stimulation is the same, but the response pathways are different. The former is the enhancement of the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system, and the latter is the enhancement of the activity of the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system. The two complement each other and jointly maintain and improve The body's ability to respond and adapt
islet
The main physiological effects of insulin
Effect on sugar metabolism: Promote sugar utilization, synthesize glycogen and convert it into fat; on the other hand, inhibit glycogen decomposition and gluconeogenesis, and lower blood sugar
Effect on fat metabolism: Promote fat synthesis and storage, inhibit lipolysis
Effect on protein metabolism: Promote cell uptake of amino acids and protein synthesis, inhibit protein decomposition
regulation of insulin secretion
① Blood sugar level regulation: Plasma glucose level is the most important factor affecting insulin synthesis and secretion.
② Levels of amino acids and fatty acids in the blood: Increased levels of amino acids in the blood can stimulate insulin secretion, which is most obvious when both blood sugar and amino acid levels increase.
③Hormonal regulation: Gastrin, secretin, etc. have the effect of stimulating insulin secretion, growth hormone, thyroid hormone and glucocorticoids, etc., can indirectly stimulate insulin secretion by increasing blood sugar concentration, while epinephrine and norepinephrine Catecholamine substances such as peptides inhibit pancreatic islet B cells from secreting insulin.
④The role of autonomic nerves: The vagus nerve can cause the secretion of insulin, and can also indirectly promote the secretion of insulin by stimulating the release of gastrointestinal hormones. The sympathetic nerve can inhibit insulin secretion by releasing norepinephrine.
⑤Intra-islet regulation: Glucagon can directly stimulate B cells and indirectly stimulate insulin secretion through paracrine action, while somatostatin inhibits insulin secretion by B cells through paracrine action.
Physiological effects of glucagon
① Promote glycogen decomposition and gluconeogenesis, significantly enhancing the effect of raising blood sugar
②Activate lipase in adipocytes, promote lipolysis, increase blood free fatty acids and promote liver uptake of free fatty acids, therefore, increase ketone body production
③Enables amino acids to quickly enter liver cells, remove amino acids, and metabolize into sugars
④Promote protein decomposition and inhibit synthesis
⑤ Enhance the activity of myocardial phosphorylase and increase the aggregation of ca2, thereby enhancing myocardial contractility, increasing cardiac output and blood pressure
gonad
Section 3 Exercise and Endocrine Function
Important endocrine hormone responses and adaptations to exercise
Glucocorticoids, adrenocorticotropic hormone responses and adaptations to exercise
Catecholamine responses and adaptations to exercise
Growth hormone responses and adaptations to exercise
Insulin (enhanced) and glucagon (decreased) responses and adaptations to exercise
Antidiuretic hormone, mineralocorticoid responses and adaptations to exercise
The characteristics of hormone response to acute load and adaptation characteristics to long-term exercise are summarized as follows:
Emergency hormone levels increase during acute exercise, and the extent of the increase is related to exercise intensity and exercise duration.
For the main emergency hormones, the increase in levels caused by exercise Chinese medicine requires an exercise intensity threshold that activates the hormone to increase, and the thresholds for activating different hormones to increase are different.
After long-term exercise training, hormone levels will decompensate to a certain extent, manifesting as a more precise response amplitude and more economical functions.
After long-term training, the combined results of different hormonal changes always tend to be beneficial to exercise.
Chapter 5 Immunity and Exercise
Section 1 Fundamentals of Immunology
immune system
Basic concepts of immunity
Refers to a specific physiological reaction when the body comes into contact with "antigenic foreign matter" or "foreign component". Its function is to identify and eliminate antigenic foreign matter to maintain the body's physiological balance.
Divided into non-specific immunity and specific immunity
non-specific immunity
It means that some of the body's resistance to antigenic foreign bodies is innate, that is, it is acquired genetically during the development and evolution of the germ line.
specific immunity
It refers to the immunity acquired by an individual due to infection by pathogenic microorganisms or vaccination during the course of life. Its basic characteristics are ① specificity ② diversity ③ memory ④ tolerance ⑤ self-limiting
Immune system and its functions
immune system
It is composed of immune organs, immune tissues, immune cells and immune molecules
Immune Function
①Immune defense
Refers to the body's ability to resist and eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and other foreign matter, which is anti-infection.
②Immune stability
It refers to the body's function of removing mutated or aging cells to maintain physiological balance. This is a self-control regulatory mechanism within the body's immune system. It removes degeneration, damages aging and dead cells that appear in the body, etc.
③Immune monitoring
It refers to the function of the body to recognize and eliminate mutated cells that appear in the body, prevent the occurrence of tumors, and prevent normal cells from mutating.
immune organ
It is the place where immune cells differentiate, proliferate and settle, and is divided into central lymphoid organs and peripheral lymphoid organs.
Immune Cells
①Lymphocytes
T cells: mainly mediate cellular immunity
B cells: Lymphocytes mediate humoral immunity
K cells: kill target cells covered by antibodies
Nk cells: directly kill certain tumor cells or virus-infected cells
In addition to inducing cellular immunity and humoral immunity, lymphocytes can also secrete a variety of cytokines. These cytokines not only act on the immune system itself, regulating and controlling the occurrence and extent of immune responses, but also act on the nervous system and endocrine system. , participating in the integration conditions of the neuro-endocrine-immune network on body functions
②Monocyte-macrophage
Has a variety of immune functions, including phagocytosis and killing, antigen presentation and secretion
③The main immune function of granulocytes is neutrophils
Neutrophils account for 50 to 70% of the total number of white blood cells and are an important part of the body's non-specific immune system. In addition to phagocytosis of many cells and viral pathogens, they can also release cytokines with immunomodulatory effects.
immune molecules
Antibody
It is an antagonistic substance produced by the body in response to antigens
complement
It refers to a group of globulin that normally exists in the serum of humans and animals and is related to immunity and may have enzymatic activity.
Cytokines
It is mainly produced by lymphocytes and monocytes-macrophages. It is customary to call the former lymphokine and the latter mononuclear factor. In fact, other immune cells and immune cells can also produce it.
immune response
humoral immune response
Induction phase: This is an antigen presentation process
Proliferation and differentiation stage: BCDF and BCGF can promote B cells to mature, proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells
Effect stage: In this stage, most B cells can become plasma cells to synthesize and secrete immunoglobulins, and then the antibodies directly or indirectly exert immune effects to kill antigenic substances entering the human body. At the same time, some B cells become memory B cells.
cellular immune response
Induction phase: basically the same as the induction phase of humoral immunity
Proliferation and differentiation stage: Activated TH cells begin to proliferate in large quantities, eventually leading to the activation of corresponding TD cells and TC cells, entering the effector stage
Effector stage: activate TC cells to exert specific cytotoxic effects and attack target cells.
Section 2 Exercise and Immunity
Immune function response to exercise
fenestration theory
This theory holds that the sharp increase in stress hormones and the sharp increase in hemodynamics during high-intensity exercise, as well as the drastic changes in hemodynamics, lead to the rapid mobilization of lymphocytes and other immune cells into the blood, causing the number of lymphocytes and other It rises sharply during exercise, and lymphocyte subpopulations change significantly. After high-intensity exercise, lymphocyte concentration decreases, proliferation and differentiation ability and activity decrease, and immunoglobulin content and function are also affected to a certain extent, leading to a period of low immunity. During this period, external pathogens can easily invade the human body. During this period, athletes' resistance to infectious diseases decreases and their susceptibility rate increases.
J-shaped curve pattern
There is a subtle relationship between exercise intensity and the rate of upper respiratory tract infections: if we use the resting level of normal non-exercisers as a reference, we can find that regular physical exercise of moderate intensity can significantly reduce the rate of upper respiratory tract infections, while high-intensity exercise can significantly reduce the rate of upper respiratory tract infections. Exercise training will significantly increase it
Adaptation of immune function to exercise
Adaptation of immune function to fitness exercise
main performance
Enhanced humoral immune function
Enhanced cellular immune function
Enhanced function of monocytes-macrophages and neutrophils
Generally speaking, regular moderate exercise can enhance immune function and reduce the risk of disease, which has very important guiding significance for offsetting debt and quitting the national fitness movement.
Main mechanism
Effectively improve immune function and reduce the mechanism of infectious diseases, especially the occurrence and development of chronic diseases.
Adaptation of immune function to exercise training
main performance
The number of lymphocytes is reduced and their proliferation ability is significantly reduced, indicating that the cellular immune function is damaged.
The contents of major immunoglobulins IgA, IgG and important complements C3 and c4 were significantly reduced.
Plasma catecholamine and cortisone concentrations are significantly elevated after strenuous exercise
Decreased neutrophil phagocytosis and reduced oxidative activity of blood mud cells
The cytotoxicity of Nk cells is reduced, and the lymphocyte proliferation induced by retinogen is reduced.
Long-duration and high-intensity exercise training will cause damage to muscle cells and secondary release of inflammatory cytokines, causing an imbalance in the body's anti-inflammatory-pro-inflammatory mechanism.
Decreased nasal and salivary sIgA concentrations and reduced nasal mucosal clearance indicate an impaired ability of the upper respiratory tract to clear external pathogens
Expression of the major histocompatibility complex MHC-II, thereby affecting the antigen presentation process by T lymphocytes
Main mechanism
The inhibitory effect of sympathetic nerve excitement on immune function
The balanced relationship between immune regulatory information is destroyed
The inhibitory effect of reduced blood sugar concentration on immune function
The destructive effect of oxygen free radicals on immune cells is enhanced
The negative impact of elevated immunosuppressive factors on immune function
Regulation of immune function
Regulatory effects of carbohydrates on immune function
Immunomodulatory effects of glucose
Immunomodulatory effects of fructooligosaccharides (oligofructose)
The regulating effect of vitamins on immune function
The immune conditioning effect of vitamin A: an anti-infectious vitamin. It is an important substance for maintaining the health of the skin on the body surface and the mucous membranes of organs. It also has a significant promoting effect on humoral immunity and cellular immunity, and can enhance the phagocytosis of macrophages and natural killer cells. activity and can inhibit the growth of tumor cells
The immune conditioning effect of vitamin C: Also called ascorbic acid, it can not only reduce the oxidative stress caused by exercise on the body, but also correct and improve the body's immune response and enhance immune function.
The immune conditioning effect of vitamin E: It is a fat-soluble vitamin that has the effect of delaying aging.
The immunomodulatory effect of biotin: it can increase the weight of the thymus, intestines, lymph nodes and spleen, increase the DNA content and DNA turnover rate of the thymus and spleen
The regulatory effect of antioxidants on immune function
antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase
Catalase
Glutathione peroxidase
Chapter 6 Blood and Sports
Section 1 The composition and characteristics of blood
Blood is composed of plasma and blood cells floating in it. The anticoagulated blood is placed in a hematocrit tube and centrifuged. Due to the different relative densities of blood cells and plasma, the blood will be divided into three layers. The upper layer of light yellow liquid is Plasma, the lower layer is dark red red blood cells, and the white opaque parts between the two are white blood cells and platelets. The proportion of blood cells in the blood is called hematocrit, and the hematocrit is very close to the hematocrit in the blood.
blood composition
plasma
plasma proteins
Meaning: a general term for various proteins in plasma, including albumin, white globules, albumin and fibrinogen
Main functions: As a carrier of various substances and hormones, it maintains the normal pH of plasma; maintains plasma colloid osmotic pressure and maintains water balance inside and outside blood vessels; participates in the body's immune function; participates in blood coagulation and fibrinolysis processes
Water and inorganic salts
Water is the solvent for various substances in plasma, accounting for 90 to 92% of the total volume of plasma. Most nutrients and metabolites in plasma are dissolved in water for transportation. At the same time, it participates in body temperature regulation. The activity of these ions The main function is to maintain crystal osmotic pressure, maintain the acid-base balance of body fluids, and maintain the excitability of tissue cells. Certain ions are also agonists of enzyme activity in the body.
non-protein organic matter
Nitrogen-containing compounds include amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, bile pigments, etc.
Nitrogen-free drugs are mainly glucose, various lipids, ketone bodies, lactic acid, etc.
blood cells
red blood cells
Shape: Nucleated, biconcave disc shape, thicker at the edge and thinner in the center, giving red blood cells high plastic deformability
Function: Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, buffer acid-base and immunity, etc.
leukocyte
Shape: colorless, nucleated, spherical, large in size
Composition: Monocytes, Lymphocytes and Granulocytes
Function: The function of protecting the body and the function of defense
platelets
Morphology: no nucleus, fragment-like, without complete cell structure
Function: Promote hemostasis, accelerate coagulation and protect the integrity of vascular endothelial cells
Physical and chemical properties of blood
HP
The total blood volume of an adult is 7 to 8 percent of body weight
Specific gravity and viscosity
The specific gravity is between 1.025 and 1.034, the specific gravity of red blood cells is 1.090 to 1.092, and the specific gravity of plasma is 1.025 to 1.034. The specific gravity of whole blood mainly depends on the number of red blood cells and the content of plasma protein. The specific gravity of plasma is related to the content of plasma protein.
Blood viscosity mainly depends on the number of red blood cells and the content of plasma proteins. Hematocrit is the most important factor that determines blood viscosity. The larger the hematocrit, the higher the blood viscosity.
Osmotic pressure
The force that causes water molecules to move through the membrane in the plasma is called plasma osmotic pressure, which is divided into body osmotic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure formed by electrolytes is called crystal osmotic pressure, and the osmotic pressure formed by proteins is called crystal osmotic pressure. colloid osmotic pressure
Plasma pH
The pH of normal human plasma is 7.35 to 7.45. When acidic or alkaline substances enter the blood, the buffer substances in the plasma can effectively reduce the impact of acidic substances or alkaline substances on plasma pH, especially in the kidneys and lungs. The normal function of expelling excess acid or alkali from the body makes the fluctuation range of plasma pH smaller.
Section 2 Functions of Blood
Physiological functions of blood
Transport function: Transport is the basic function of blood. Nutrients, oxygen and carbon dioxide, metabolites, hormones, etc. are all transported throughout the body through blood.
Maintain the homeostasis of the internal environment: There is a buffer system in the blood to buffer the acidic or alkaline substances entering the blood so that the blood pH does not fluctuate greatly. The plasma colloid osmotic pressure is a force that causes tissue fluid to flow back to the capillaries. It is the main factor in maintaining water balance inside and outside blood vessels.
Defense function: White blood cells and various immune substances have a protective effect on the body
Physiological hemostasis function: Platelets and coagulation factors in the blood play an important role in the body's physiological hemostasis.
functions of plasma
Transport function: The main function is to transport blood cells to transport substances needed to maintain human life activities and metabolites produced in the body, etc.
Nutritional function: Certain cells in the body, especially the single-drinking phagocyte system, can engulf complete plasma proteins, and then intracellular enzymes break down the swallowed proteins into amino acids that diffuse into the blood and are readily available to other cells. Used when synthesizing new proteins
The function of maintaining the homeostasis of the internal environment: It is equivalent to the external environment of cells for the survival of the human body. The external fluid is the direct environment for cells to live, which is called the internal environment. The relative stability of the physical and chemical properties of the internal environment is the guarantee for the normal functions of the cells. Therefore, the internal environment Relative stability is a necessary condition for normal life activities of the body
Immune function: The immunoglobulins and complement system contained in plasma are all plasma proteins and play an important role in immune function.
Coagulation and anticoagulation: Most of the coagulation factors and physiological anticoagulant substances in plasma, as well as substances that promote fibrinolysis, are proteins. Factors such as fibrinogen and thrombin in plasma are components that cause blood coagulation.
function of blood cells
Function of red blood cells: has the function of transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide and has a certain ability to buffer pH
Function of white blood cells: They can phagocytose foreign bodies and produce antibodies. They play an important role in healing the body's damage, resisting the invasion of pathogens and defending against diseases. They are an important part of the body's defense system.
Platelet function
Maintain endothelial integrity
Coagulation and hemostasis
Section 3: The Effect of Exercise on Blood Components
Effects of exercise on plasma
Effect of exercise on plasma volume
Effect of exercise on plasma volume: Exercise training can increase plasma volume. High blood volume caused by exercise is a manifestation of the body's adaptability and mobilization. It allows the body to maintain a certain circulating blood volume after changes in heavy sweating. At the same time, it can reduce the viscosity of blood and peripheral resistance, which is beneficial to body temperature regulation and material transportation.
Effects of exercise on blood lipids and blood sugar
Blood lipids: It can bring about beneficial changes in blood lipids and lipoproteins. Exercise is an effective means to prevent dyslipidemia.
Blood sugar: Appropriate physical activity, whether for type 1 diabetes or type 2 diabetes, can improve insulin sensitivity and enhance glucose utilization, thereby lowering blood sugar and improving blood sugar control.
Effects of exercise on blood cells
Effects of exercise on red blood cells
The impact of exercise on the number of red blood cells: Compared with short-term, high-intensity, fast exercise and long-term endurance exercise, the increase in red blood cells is more obvious. The greater the amount of exercise, the greater the increase in red blood cells. Athletes who have undergone long-term systematic training will increase their red blood cells at rest. The blood volume is higher than that of the average person. The number of red blood cells is not higher than that of the average person, and some are even lower than the normal value.
HB and sports: Use hemoglobin indicators to select athletes. There are three types: high type, normal type, and fluctuating type. Each type can be divided into those with large fluctuations and those with small fluctuations. Those with high hemoglobin values and small fluctuations are better.
Subtopic: A temporary phenomenon in which HB concentration, red blood cell count, or HCT is lower than normal due to exercise training, called exercise anemia.
pseudoanaemia
Performance: increased blood volume, greater increase in plasma volume, less increase in the number of red blood cells, relative decrease in the number of red blood cells, relative decrease in hematocrit, relatively normal medical unit volume and volume measurement performance
Reason: The working dissolution of red blood cells strengthens the stimulation of the production of red blood cells and hemoglobin.
Physiological significance: Reduce blood viscosity, reduce circulatory resistance, and reduce cardiac load in a resting state. Blood is relatively concentrated during exercise, ensuring a corresponding increase in hemoglobin. It is one of the important factors influencing the aerobic work potential of elite athletes.
true anemia
Performance: Absolute decrease in the number of red blood cells and absolute decrease in hematocrit
Cause: Increased destruction of red blood cells during exercise
Effects of altitude training and hypoxic training on blood composition
The main purpose is to use the hypoxic environment to stimulate the body's physiological adaptation to hypoxic stress, stimulate the body's hematopoietic system, promote red blood cell production, increase the content of HB and myoglobin, and thereby enhance the ability of blood to transport oxygen and muscles to utilize oxygen.
Chapter 7 Breathing and Movement
Overview of breathing
Meaning: refers to the phenomenon that the body continuously absorbs O2 and discharges CO2 from the external environment during the metabolic process. Respiration is one of the basic physiological processes necessary to maintain life activities. Once breathing stops, life will end.
three links
external breathing
Gas exchange between the external environment and the blood in the lungs
gas transport
It refers to the process by which circulating blood transports O2 from the lungs to the tissues and CO2 from the tissues to the lungs.
internal breathing
In tissue capillaries, gas exchange between blood and tissue cells occurs through tissue fluid.
First session of lung ventilation
dynamics of pulmonary ventilation
respiratory movements
The driving force of pulmonary ventilation is the air pressure difference between the atmosphere and the alveoli
calm breathing
Breathing movement in quiet state
Features ① During calm inhalation, the intercostal muscles and external intercostal muscles contract → the thoracic volume expands → the lung volume expands → the air pressure in the lungs decreases → gas enters the lungs. This process is active. ② During calm exhalation, the intercostal muscles and external intercostal muscles relax → the volume of the thorax decreases → the volume of the lungs decreases → the air pressure in the lungs increases → the gas leaves the lungs. This process is passive.
Breathe hard
When exhaling forcefully, the expiratory muscles contract more intensively, the thorax shrinks rapidly, and the intrapulmonary pressure increases sharply, resulting in rapid breathing.
breathing pattern
abdominal breathing
Breathing exercises based on diaphragm exercises
chest breathing
Respiratory exercises based on intercostal external machine exercises
Adjustments during exercise
① During exercise, the breathing pattern can be flexibly changed according to the characteristics of the movement ② For more complex sports, you need to learn to use complex subjective control of breathing
intrapleural pressure
The pleural cavity is a closed space between the parietal and visceral layers of the pleura
Intrapleural pressure refers to the pressure within the pleural cavity
negative intrathoracic pressure
During normal breathing, the pressure in the pleural cavity is always lower than atmospheric pressure
Hold your breath
Advantages: Can reflexively cause an increase in muscle tone
Disadvantages: ① Causes venous blood to flow together, making it difficult to reduce cardiac output and blood pressure, resulting in insufficient blood supply to the myocardium, brain cells, and retina, easily causing dizziness, nausea, tinnitus, and the feeling of stars in the eyes. ②When the breath holding is over, deep inhalation will occur reflexively, causing the intrapleural pressure to drop sharply, and the blood retained in the veins to return to the heart quickly, causing the blood pressure to rise sharply.
Note: ① Don’t inhale too deeply before holding your breath ②Adapting to breath-holding should follow the principle of gradual progress ③Hold your breath and use it at the critical moment of victory
Assessment of pulmonary ventilation function
lung volume
meaning
The total volume of air in the lungs
composition
tidal volume
Volume of air inhaled or exhaled per breath
Supplementary inspiratory volume
The amount of air inhaled after inhaling and then inhaling to the maximum
Supplementary expiratory volume
The volume of air exhaled after the maximum exhalation
Remaining air volume
The amount of air remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration
Lung capacity
meaning
Refers to the combined gas volume of two or more items in the lung capacity
deep inspiratory volume
It refers to the amount of gas that can be inhaled when doing the maximum inhalation from the end of calm exhalation (deep inspiratory volume = tidal volume + supplementary inspiratory volume)
Significance: It is an important indicator to measure the maximum ventilation potential.
functional residual capacity
The amount of gas that has not yet remained in the lungs at the end of quiet expiration (functional residual volume = residual volume + supplementary expiratory volume)
Meaning: Buffer the changes in alveolar oxygen partial pressure and carbon dioxide partial pressure during breathing
vital capacity
It refers to the maximum inhalation followed by the maximum exhalation. The amount of air that can be exhaled is called vital capacity (VC). (Vital capacity = tidal volume + supplementary inspiratory volume + supplementary expiratory volume)
Influencing factors: body size, age, gender, body position, lung volume, chest size, respiratory muscle strength, lung and chest elasticity, etc.
Meaning: Vital capacity reflects the maximum ventilation that the lungs can achieve in one breath.
Forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced vital capacity in 1 second (FVC1)
FVC refers to the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled as quickly as possible after one maximum inhalation.
FVC1 refers to the volume of air exhaled in the first second, which is called forced expiration in one second. When the expiratory volume is normal, the forced expiratory volume in the first second is about 83% of the forced vital capacity.
Significance: FVC and FVC are clinically important in diagnosing respiratory diseases
total lung capacity
It refers to the maximum amount of gas that the lungs can hold. The formula is: total lung capacity = vital capacity + remaining air volume
Influencing factors: gender, age, body shape, training level, changes in posture
Pulmonary ventilation and alveolar ventilation
pulmonary ventilation
Refers to the maximum total amount of gas that the human body inhales or exhales per minute
Maximum ventilation volume: refers to the maximum volume of air that can be breathed per unit time
maximum voluntary ventilation
It refers to the maximum amount of air that an athlete can inhale or exhale per minute when trying to breathe quickly.
Significance: ① Can be used to understand the elasticity of the thorax and lung tissue, the resistance of the respiratory tract, the strength and speed of respiratory muscles, etc. ②Can evaluate the subject’s pulmonary ventilation reserve capacity
Alveolar ventilation: refers to the amount of fresh air inhaled into the alveoli per minute
Response and adaptation of pulmonary ventilation to exercise
Pulmonary ventilation response to exercise
Performance: When the exercise intensity is low, the increase in minute ventilation is mainly due to the increase in tidal volume; when the exercise intensity is low, the increase in respiratory rate is mainly responsible.
Characteristics of changes: ① Before the start of exercise, the ventilation volume increases slightly. After the start of exercise, the ventilation volume increases and then reaches a stable level. ②Ventilation also decreases when exercise stops and gradually returns to the pre-exercise level.
Adaptation of lung ventilation to training
Adaptation of minute ventilation
① Compared with those without training, the minute ventilation of trained people is not much different at rest. The increase in the trained people is smaller when completing submaximal exercise. The maximum ventilation of trained people is obvious when completing maximal exercise. higher ② When well-trained endurance athletes perform incremental load exercises, the nonlinear change in pulmonary ventilation is delayed and the ventilation valve increases.
Improvement of lung ventilation efficiency
① Long-term trainees’ breathing depth increases and breathing frequency decreases when they are quiet. ② There are trainers whose breathing depth and frequency match more reasonably during exercise.
Decrease in oxygen ventilation equivalent
The resting oxygen ventilation equivalent hardly changes due to training. When completing the same intensity exercise, the oxygen ventilation equivalent of elite endurance athletes is lower than that of non-endurance athletes.
Respiratory muscle training
Significance: ①Improve the pulmonary ventilation function of athletes ② Improve respiratory muscle endurance, reduce respiratory tract resistance, and improve athletes’ endurance level
training method
With the help of a respiratory muscle training device
Prolonged endurance exercise training
Use flying breathing to train the diaphragm
Lung ventilation and tissue ventilation
Meaning: The exchange of o2 and co2 between alveoli and blood, and between blood and tissue, is called gas exchange. The former is called lung ventilation, and the latter is called tissue ventilation.
The principle of gas exchange
Partial pressure: refers to the pressure of each component gas in the mixed gas.
Gas partial pressure difference: In a mixed gas, the driving force for the movement of each gas molecule is the partial pressure difference
The driving force of gas exchange: the partial pressure difference of each gas
gas exchange process
① When venous blood flows through the alveoli, O2 diffuses from the alveoli to the venous blood, and Co2 diffuses from the venous blood to the alveoli. After pulmonary ventilation, the oxygen partial pressure increases, while the carbon dioxide partial pressure decreases, and the venous blood becomes arterial blood.
② When arterial blood flows through the tissue, O2 diffuses from the blood to the tissue, while CO2 diffuses from the tissue to the blood. After passing through the tissue, the partial pressure of oxygen decreases, while the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases, and the arterial blood becomes venous blood.
③The blood in the capillaries of the pulmonary circulation continuously obtains O2 from the alveoli and releases CO2, while the blood in the capillaries of the systemic circulation continuously provides O2 to the tissues and transports CO2 away.
Factors affecting gas exchange
physical factors
The gas diffusion rate is directly proportional to the diffusion area and inversely proportional to the diffusion distance
The gas diffusion rate is proportional to the partial pressure difference
Gas diffusion rate is proportional to temperature
ventilation/blood flow ratio
The ventilation/blood flow ratio is the ratio of alveolar ventilation to pulmonary blood flow per minute.
The normal ventilation/blood flow ratio at rest is about 0.84
During small-to-medium intensity exercise, the ventilation/blood flow ratio remains basically stable, while during high-intensity exercise, the ratio increases.
Gases are transported in the blood
Meaning: The transportation of O2 and co2 is carried by blood. O2 and co2 exist in the blood in two forms: physical dissolution and chemical combination. Among them, chemical combination is the main one and physical dissolution is the supplement.
oxygen transport
The combination of Hb and o2
Hb oxygen capacity
In 100 ML of blood, the maximum amount of o2 that Hb can combine with is called Hb oxygen capacity
Hboxygen content
The amount of o2 actually combined with Hb is called Hb oxygen content
Hb oxygen saturation
The percentage of Hb oxygen content in Hb capacity is called Hb oxygen saturation
oxygen dissociation curve
Meaning: The curve of the relationship between the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood and the Hb oxygen saturation
Analysis of Oxygen Dissociation Curves
Upper right section: The part that reflects the combination of Hb and o2
Middle section: reflects the part where Hb o2 releases O2
Lower left section: If the partial pressure of oxygen decreases slightly within this range, the Hb oxygen saturation will decrease significantly.
oxygen utilization coefficient
Meaning: The volume of O2 released when blood flows through tissues and the percentage of arterial blood oxygen content
Significance: An effective indicator to evaluate tissue ventilation or the ability of tissue cells to utilize oxygen.
Factors Affecting Oxygen Dissociation Curve
Pco2, pH, temperature, 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate, etc.
oxygen reserve
There are 1300 to 2300 ML of O2 stored in the blood and lungs, and occasionally 240 to 500 ML stored in myoglobin
oxygen pulse
Meaning: The amount of oxygen the human body absorbs from the blood volume output by the heart with each beat.
Significance: Comprehensive index to evaluate cardiopulmonary function
transport of carbon dioxide
Transport in bicarbonate form
CO 2 produced by tissue cell metabolism enters the blood and is mainly transported in the form of Hco3-
Transport of carbamic acid in the form of hemoglobin
After Co 2 enters red blood cells, it can directly combine with the free amino groups on the Hb molecule to form carbamic acid hemoglobin.
Regulation of respiratory movements
respiratory center
In the central nervous system, the group of nerve cells that generate and regulate respiratory movements is called the respiratory center
The respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata is the most basic respiratory center
There is a respiratory adjustment center in the pons that can perfect the normal respiratory rhythm.
The control information of voluntary breathing comes from the motor area and premotor area of the cerebral cortex.
reflexive conditioning
pulmonary stretch reflex
Refers to reflex breathing changes caused by the expansion or contraction of the lungs
Respiratory muscle proprioceptive reflex
It refers to the reflex breathing changes caused by the incoming impulse from the proprioceptor of the ventilator.
defensive breathing reflex
Refers to changes in respiratory movements caused by coughing responses, sneezing responses, etc.
chemoreceptors
Meaning: A general term for receptors that sense chemical stimuli from the internal and external environments of the body
Regulation of respiratory movement by Co2
Co2 has a strong stimulating effect on breathing and is the most important physiological stimulus to maintain normal breathing.
H+ regulation of respiratory movements
The concentration of H+ in arterial blood increases, which deepens breathing and accelerates pulmonary ventilation.
Regulation of respiratory movements by low O2
Low O2 has a direct inhibitory effect on the respiratory center
Hypothesis on the regulation of respiratory changes during exercise
It is generally believed that the increase in ventilation before exercise is a conditioned reflex
The slow increase in respiration is generally believed to be related to the regulation process of the chemoreceptor reflex.
The increase in temperature during exercise may play an important role in increasing pulmonary ventilation.
After exercise stops, the impulses from the cortex and other parts to the respiratory center stop, and ventilation drops sharply.
Changes in breathing during exercise are the result of the joint regulation of multiple factors, in which the neural regulation mechanism plays a major role, and the body fluid regulation mechanism and other factors play a supporting and regulatory role.
Chapter 8 Blood Circulation and Movement
Overview of the Cardiovascular System
It is composed of blood that exists in the cardiovascular system. The heart is the power organ of the cardiovascular system. During the entire life process, the heart beats continuously to promote the circulation of blood in the cardiovascular system.
cardiac physiology
Cardiomyocyte type
Ordinary cardiomyocytes
Specially differentiated cardiomyocytes with automatic rhythmicity
Myocardial physiological properties
Excitability
Myocardial working cells, like skeletal muscle cells, also have the ability to be excited by stimuli, that is, excitability. They must first receive their own signal, which first manifests as an action potential on the cell membrane, and then a mechanical contraction, but the action of the cardiac muscle cells Compared with skeletal muscle cells, electric potential is much more complex in waveform and formation mechanism.
automatic rhythmicity
The characteristic that cardiomyocytes can automatically produce rhythmic excitation without external stimulation is called automatic rhythmicity. Usually, the sinoatrial node has the highest automatic rhythm and is the autonomic tissue that dominates the excitement of the entire heart, so it is called the normal pacemaker of the heart.
conductivity
Cardiomyocytes have the ability to conduct excitation
Contractibility
Synchronous contraction
Due to the existence of low-resistance intercalated disks between cardiomyocytes, excitement can spread rapidly between cells through the reassuring connections, causing almost synchronous excitation and contraction of all cells in the atrial and ventricular myocardium.
No tetanic contraction occurs
Since the effective refractory period of myocardial cell excitation is very long, equivalent to the entire systole and early diastole, in this case, the heart does not undergo tonic contractions, but performs single contractions over and over again.
Premature contractions and compensatory intervals
If after the effective refractory period of normal myocardial excitation ends, before the next sinus node excitation arrives, additional stimulation outside the sinus node can cause the ventricle to excite and contract in advance, which are called pre-excitation and pre-systole respectively. There is often a longer period of ventricular diastole after a presystole, which is called a compensatory interval.
heart pumping process
ventricular systole
isovolumetric contraction phase
ejection phase
ventricular diastole
isovolumetric diastole
ventricular filling phase
Evaluation of heart pumping function
heart rate
The number of times the heart beats per minute
Stroke volume and ejection fraction
Stroke volume: the amount of blood ejected from one ventricle in one heart beat
Ejection fraction: The ventricle does not eject all the filled blood each time it ejects. The stroke volume accounts for the percentage of the ventricular end-diastolic filling volume.
Minute output and cardiac index
Minute output: the amount of blood output by one ventricle per minute
Cardiac index: The cardiac output of the human body at rest is directly proportional to the body surface area, and the cardiac output is calculated per square meter of body surface area.
mental reserve
Cardiac output can increase with the needs of the body's metabolic level, which is called cardiac pump function reserve
maximum heart rate
HRmax=220-Age
stroke volume reserve
systolic reserve
Refers to the extent to which ventricular end-systolic volume decreases when ventricular contractility increases.
diastolic reserve
refers to the extent to which ventricular end-diastolic volume can increase
Factors affecting cardiac output
front load
refers to the load endured by a muscle before it contracts
afterload
refers to the load encountered when a muscle begins to contract
myocardial contractility
It refers to an intrinsic characteristic of the myocardium that changes its mechanical properties independently of preload and postload. This has nothing to do with the initial length of the myocardium, but a mechanism to adjust stroke volume by changing the contractility of the myocardium. It is also called isometric adjustment.
heart rate
Staircase phenomenon: an increase in heart rate leading to an increase in myocardial contractility
Optimal heart rate range: The heart rate range that keeps cardiac output at a high level
Stroke Peak: Exercise physiology defines the heart rate level at which stroke volume reaches its peak.
electrocardiogram
It is the waveform of ECG changes recorded by placing the guide electrode on a certain part of the body surface.
Vascular Physiology
Functional characteristics of blood vessels and their endocrine functions
Functional characteristics of various types of blood vessels
①Classification of blood vessels according to tissue structure: arteries, capillaries, veins
②Classification of blood vessels according to their functions: elastic organ blood vessels, distribution blood vessels, and resistance blood vessels
③Exchange blood vessels
④Short-circuit blood vessels
⑤Capacity blood vessels
endocrine function of blood vessels
Synthesizes and releases various vasodilator and vasoconstrictor substances. The two restrict each other and maintain dynamic balance.
Synthesize and secrete renin and angiotensin to regulate local blood vessel tone and blood flow
Secretes a variety of vasoactive substances to regulate structural changes and systolic function of blood vessels
arterial blood pressure and arterial pulse
arterial blood pressure
Meaning: refers to the lateral pressure of the blood in the blood vessel on the blood wall per unit area
arterial blood pressure conditions
The presence of blood filling in the blood is a prerequisite for the formation of arterial blood pressure. If there is no blood filling, there will be no lateral pressure on the blood vessel wall.
Interaction of ventricular ejection and peripheral resistance
Factors affecting arterial blood pressure
Stroke volume: Changes in stroke volume mainly affect systolic blood pressure
Heart rate: changes in heart rate mainly affect diastolic blood pressure
Peripheral resistance: mainly affects diastolic blood pressure
Elasticity of the aortic wall: The expansibility and elasticity of the aortic wall can buffer the fluctuations of arterial blood pressure, so that the systolic blood pressure will not be too high and the diastolic blood pressure will not be too low.
Circulating blood volume: Under normal circumstances, circulating blood volume is compatible with the capacity of the vascular system and is relatively stable.
arterial pulse
Periodic pulsation of arteries caused by the contraction of the heart
Venous blood vessels and venous blood return to the heart
venous blood pressure
The blood pressure in the right atrium and the large veins in the chest is usually called central venous pressure, and the blood pressure in the veins of various organs is called peripheral venous pressure.
Venous blood return to the heart and its influencing factors
Meaning: The amount of blood returned to the heart by the veins determines the filling volume at the end of diastole and directly affects the stroke volume of the heart.
①Mean systemic filling pressure
②Myocardial contraction force
③Change in body position
④The squeezing effect of skeletal muscles
⑤ Breathing exercise
Microcirculation
Meaning: refers to the blood circulation between arterioles and venules
structure
arterioles
posterior arteriole
precapillary sphincter
True capillaries
blood capillaries
venules
Regulation of cardiovascular activity
neuromodulation
innervation of heart
innervation of blood vessels
cardiovascular center
cardiovascular reflex
body fluid regulation
Adrenaline and norepinephrine
renin-angiotensin
Other humoral factors
self-regulation
metabolic autoregulation
myogenic autoregulation
Effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system
Changes in cardiovascular function during exercise
Heart rate, stroke volume and output
The most obvious change is that the heart rate increases. As the heart rate increases significantly during exercise, the contraction force of the myocardium also increases significantly.
organ blood flow
Cardiac output will increase significantly during exercise, but the increase is not distributed proportionally among each organ. Instead, the blood flow of each organ is redistributed according to collective needs through the body's regulatory mechanism. During exercise, The results of blood flow redistribution are as follows: blood flow in the heart and exercise muscles increases significantly, up to close to 90% of the total blood flow; blood flow in internal organs, brain, kidneys and other organs significantly decreases; skin blood flow decreases in the early stages of exercise, and subsequently increases. As muscle heat production increases, skin blood vessels dilate and blood flow increases.
blood pressure
Mean arterial pressure increases during exercise, but systolic and diastolic blood pressure do not increase to the same extent
Effects of exercise training on the cardiovascular system
Exercise-induced cardiac hypertrophy and microstructural remodeling
Cardiac hypertrophy caused by long-term exercise or training, with the main signs of cardiac chamber enlargement and new wall thickening, is called exercise cardiac hypertrophy.
At the same time as exercise-induced cardiac hypertrophy, the mitochondria, oxidases, capillaries, sarcoplasmic reticulum, special secretory granules of cardiomyocytes and the fine structures of innervation in myocardial cells will all undergo adaptive changes, that is, cardiac remodeling occurs.
exercise bradycardia
Long-term exercise training can significantly reduce the resting heart rate. This phenomenon in which the resting heart rate is significantly lower than the normal value due to exercise or training is called exercise bradycardia.
Improved heart pumping function
In a resting state: there is no difference in cardiac output from ordinary people, but ordinary people have a fast heart rate and a small stroke volume, while athletes have a bradycardia and a large stroke volume.
During quantitative load exercise: the amplitude of the trained heart rate is small, the amplitude of the stroke volume increases, and the amplitude of the cardiac output is smaller than that of ordinary people, showing the phenomenon of economy in the heart pump function.
When completing extreme load exercise: the athlete's heart pump function shows a higher functional reserve
Chapter 9 Digestion, Absorption and Excretion
digestion and absorption
Digestion
Meaning: refers to the process in which food is broken down into absorbable small molecular substances through the movement of the digestive tract and the action of digestive juices.
Overview
General physiological characteristics of digestive tract smooth muscle
Excitability
automatic rhythmicity
tension
stretch sensitivity
functions of digestive glands
Break down nutrients in food
Provides a suitable pH environment for various digestive enzymes
Dilute food so that the osmotic pressure of the digestive tract contents is close to that of plasma, which is beneficial to the absorption of nutrients.
The mucus and antibodies contained in it can protect the mucus in the digestive tract.
innervation of digestive tract
Sympathetic nerve
parasympathetic nerve
Digestion in various parts of the digestive tract
digestive tract
chewing and swallowing
saliva
Digestion in the stomach
Secretion and function of gastric juice
The gastric mucosa contains cardia glands, oxyntic glands, pyloric glands and a variety of endocrine cells, such as B cells, D cells, mast cells, etc. The digestive juice secreted by these glands and endocrine cells is called gastric juice. The pH of gastric juice is 0.9 to 1.5, colorless, containing hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, mucus, sodium and potassium ions, gastrin, somatostatin and histamine and other substances.
The role of stomach acid
Turn pepsinogen into active pepsin, denature proteins, kill bacteria, maintain calcium and iron plasma status to promote their absorption. Gastric acid entering the duodenum can also promote the secretion of pancreatic juice and bile and secretin, cholecystokinin release
The function of pepsin is to hydrolyze proteins into peptone, peptone and a small amount of polypeptides. Intrinsic factor can combine with vitamin B12 in food to form a complex that is easily absorbed by the ileum.
Mucus can be mixed with other components secreted by gastric glands to lubricate the chyme in the stomach, protect the gastric mucosa from friction damage of food, and prevent gastric mucosal cells from direct contact with the high concentration of hydrochloric acid of pepsin
Stomach movements
receptive relaxation
tonic contraction
squirm
Digestion in the small intestine
After chyme enters the small intestine, the digestion and absorption process of food is basically completed under the action of chemical digestion by pancreatic juice, bile and small intestinal juice and mechanical digestion by small intestinal movement. Therefore, the small intestine is the most important part for the digestion and absorption of nutrients.
movements of the large intestine
Tonic contraction: When the tone of the smooth muscle of the small intestine decreases or increases, the mixing and movement speed of chyme in the small intestine changes.
Rhythmic segmented movement: completed by the relaxation and contraction of the circular muscles of the small intestine, which plays a very important role in the digestion of food.
Peristalsis: pushing chyme toward the large intestine, completed by circular muscles, but at a slow speed
absorb
Meaning: After food is digested, some nutrients enter the blood and lymph through the epithelial cells of the digestive tract.
site of absorption
Mouth and esophagus
Stomach
small intestine
the large intestine
Absorption form
passive transport
active transport
Inbound and outbound transport
Characteristics of small intestinal absorption
The small intestine is about 4-5m, which is conducive to full digestion and absorption of food.
The small intestine has a huge absorptive area
Rich in capillaries and lymphatic vessels
Major nutrients absorbed by the small intestine
H2O, inorganic salts and vitamins
Monosaccharides after the breakdown of carbohydrates
Amino acids after digestion and breakdown of protein
The products of fat digestion combine with bile salts to form water-soluble complexes
Natural proteins or intermediates of protein breakdown
Effects of exercise on digestion and absorption
During strenuous exercise, the body’s digestive capacity is reduced
Moderate or low-intensity exercise has a good promotion effect on gastrointestinal function
excretion
Meaning: The process by which the body excretes metabolites of substances, foreign matter entering the body, harmful substances, and excess ingested substances through the blood circulation and through certain channels.
The basic structure, functional units and blood circulation of the kidney
way
kidney
respiratory organs
skin
digestive tract
functional unit
The basic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron
structure
renal corpuscle
renal tubule
blood circulation characteristics
Rich blood supply
There are two sets of capillaries
production of urine
Meaning: When blood flows into the glomerular capillaries, part of the H2O and certain solutes in the plasma completely or partially penetrate the epithelial cells and return to the blood of the capillaries around the renal tubules and collecting ducts.
glomerular filtration
membrane permeability
filter area
Effective filtration pressure
renal blood flow
Reabsorption by renal tubules and collecting ducts
When the filtrate flows into the renal tubules and collecting ducts, all or part of the H2O and certain solutes pass through the epithelial cells and return to the capillary blood around the renal tubules and collecting ducts.
Secretion and excretion of renal tubules and collecting ducts
Secretion: the process by which the renal tubules and collecting ducts secrete their own products into the tubular fluid
Excretion: the process by which certain substances in the blood in the renal tubule and collecting duct lumen are excreted into the tubular fluid
The role of the kidneys in maintaining water and acid-base balance
During the urinary process, the kidneys excrete various metabolic end products in the body, as well as useless and harmful substances to the body, through glomerular filtration and renal tubule secretion, and absorb useful substances in the filtrate into the blood. Plays a very important role in regulating the balance of water, electrolytes and acid-base in the body
Effects of exercise on kidney function
urine output
exercise proteinuria
Causes
① The increase in lactic acid during exercise causes the volume of plasma protein to decrease, the renal tubular epithelial cells to swell, and the protein to be filtered into the urine.
② The increase in movement of acidic substances leads to an increase in positive charges, which makes positively charged proteins easily pass through the negatively charged filtration membrane of the glomerulus and enter the filtrate.
③ Mechanical damage to the kidneys during strenuous exercise
④During intense exercise, due to the redistribution of systemic blood, glomerular ischemia and hypoxia cause epithelial cell deformation, increased filtration membrane permeability, and the appearance of proteins in the blood.
exercise hematuria
Features
① Hematuria appears immediately after exercise. The severity of hematuria is closely related to the amount and intensity of exercise.
②Except for hematuria, there are generally no other symptoms or abnormalities.
③ Blood tests, renal function tests, abdominal X-ray photography, and pyelography were all normal.
④ Stop exercising immediately after hematuria occurs. Most of the blood will stop within three days.
⑤It is more common among male athletes, because it is more common among athletes in running, jumping and ball sports.
reason
①Kidney damage
② Renal ischemia and hypoxia
③ Renal venous hypertension
④Suffering from chronic hidden kidney disease
⑤Bladder damage
Chapter 10 Physical Fitness
strength qualities
Meaning: refers to the ability of muscles to overcome resistance or resist load when working.
Physiological basis of strength quality
myogenic factors
neurogenic factors
joint movement angle
other factors
age and gender
hormone
Sports Training
Determination of strength quality
maximum muscle strength
isotonic strength
isometric strength
isokinetic strength
muscular endurance
Isometric muscular endurance
Isotonic muscular endurance
isokinetic muscular endurance
muscle power
Muscle tension and contraction speed
Muscle explosive power
Strength training
Principles of strength and quality
overload principle
specialization principle
Sequence of strength training
Arrange the training of large muscle groups in the front and the training of small muscle groups in the back, because small muscle groups are more likely to fatigue than larger muscle groups. If the training of small muscle groups is arranged in the front, their fatigue will affect the performance of other muscle groups to a certain extent. train
Multi-joint muscle training is in the front, single-joint muscle training is in the back
When training a certain muscle group, perform high-intensity exercises first and low-intensity exercises last.
Strength training intervals
Core strength should be prioritized
Strength training methods
Isometric exercise: refers to a strength training method in which the length of the muscle remains unchanged when contracting against resistance, also known as static training method
Isotonic exercise: refers to a strength exercise method in which muscles alternately shorten and relax when contracting.
Isokinetic exercises
Super isometric exercise: refers to strength training in which muscles perform concentric contraction immediately after eccentric contraction. It is a training method that combines eccentric contraction and concentric contraction.
speed quality
Meaning: refers to the human body's ability to move quickly, or to complete a certain movement in the shortest time, which can be divided into reaction speed, action speed and periodic displacement speed
Physiological basis of speed quality
Physiological basis of reaction speed
Meaning: refers to the speed of the human body's reaction to various stimuli. The speed of reaction mainly depends on the length of the reaction, the functional state of the nervous system, the degree of consolidation of motor conditioned reflexes, etc.
during reaction
Functional status of the central nervous system
The degree of consolidation of motor conditioned reflexes
Physiological basis of movement speed
Meaning: refers to the length of time required to complete a single action and the speed of the action. It is mainly determined by factors such as muscle fiber type, muscle strength, functional status of nerve and muscle tissue, and the degree of consolidation of exercise conditioned reflexes.
muscle fiber type
muscle power
Functional status of nerve and muscle tissue
The degree of consolidation of motor conditioned reflexes
Physiological basis of displacement velocity
Meaning: Refers to the distance that the human body travels per unit time during periodic motion, or the time required to pass a certain distance. The human body's rapid displacement ability depends on the frequency and amplitude of limb movement, and is related to muscle strength, coordination, and limb length. and factors such as energy supply efficiency
Cadence
step length
Energy supply efficiency
Determination of speed quality
Reaction time: usually measured using a reaction time meter and a falling ruler timer.
Non-lactate exercise capacity measurement: Magalia-Calamen test; 30m running test
Speed training
Improve the flexibility of cerebral cortical neural processes
Develop the energy supply capacity of muscle phosphogen system
Develop leg muscle strength and joint flexibility
Improve muscle relaxation ability
Improve technical moves
Training to increase movement speed
Anaerobic endurance quality
Meaning: refers to the body's ability to perform muscle activities for a longer period of time without oxygen metabolism.
Physiological basis of anaerobic endurance quality
Sugar anaerobic glycolysis energy supply capacity
The body’s ability to buffer lactic acid
Acid tolerance of brain cells
Determination of anaerobic endurance quality
60s maximum load test
Wingate Anaerobic Power Test
Anaerobic endurance training
max lactate training
It refers to training when the body's blood lactic acid level reaches its highest level during exercise. Using interval training to perform multiple compound exercises in succession can gradually increase the blood lactic acid level and reach the highest level, which can better stimulate the body's ability to buffer lactic acid and Tolerance to high concentrations of lactic acid
Lactic acid tolerance training
It refers to training in which the body can still maintain high-intensity exercise ability when the body is at a high lactic acid level.
hypoxic training
It refers to the training carried out by the body in an environment with lower than normal oxygen partial pressure.
aerobic endurance quality
VO2max and anaerobic threshold
oxygen demand, oxygen uptake
oxygen demand
Refers to the amount of oxygen required by the human body to maintain certain physiological activities
VO2max and VO2max
Oxygen uptake: also known as oxygen uptake and oxygen consumption, refers to the amount of oxygen that the body can take in and use per minute
Maximum oxygen uptake: When at rest, the human body's oxygen uptake is equivalent to the oxygen demand. During exercise, as the oxygen demand increases, the oxygen uptake also increases. When the human body performs long-term strenuous exercise involving a large number of muscle groups, The amount of oxygen that can be taken in per minute when the function of the oxygen transport system and the ability of the muscles to utilize oxygen reach the highest level.
Factors affecting maximal oxygen uptake
The main factors that affect maximum oxygen uptake are cardiopulmonary function and the ability of muscle cells to absorb and utilize oxygen. The former is the central mechanism that affects maximum oxygen uptake, and the latter is the peripheral mechanism that affects maximum oxygen uptake. In addition, maximum oxygen uptake is also Related to age, gender and genetics
Oxygen deficiency and excess oxygen consumption after exercise
Oxygen deficiency
It means that when performing strenuous exercise with high intensity and long duration, even if the function of the oxygen transport system has reached the highest level, the oxygen uptake still cannot meet the requirements of the body's oxygen demand, resulting in an oxygen deficit in the body.
Excess oxygen consumption after exercise
After exercise, although muscle activity stops, the body's oxygen uptake cannot immediately return to the resting level before exercise. The body's oxygen consumption level is higher than the level before exercise.
anaerobic valve
It refers to the turning point where the human body switches from aerobic metabolism to aerobic metabolism and anaerobic metabolism during exercise with increasing load. According to different measurement methods, the anaerobic valve can be divided into lactic acid anaerobic valve and ventilation anaerobic valve. Oxygen valve, both have basically the same meaning
Physiological basis of aerobic endurance quality
Oxygen transport system function
Skeletal muscle characteristics
Nervous system's ability to regulate
Characteristics of energy supply
Determination of aerobic endurance quality
Including measurement of Vo2max and submaximal exercise load measurement
aerobic endurance training
Continuous training method: refers to a training method with lower intensity, longer duration and no gaps. It is mainly used to improve cardiopulmonary function and develop aerobic metabolism.
Lactate valve intensity training method: It is an effective intensity for developing aerobic endurance training. Endurance training at this intensity can significantly improve aerobic exercise capacity.
Interval training method: refers to having an appropriate interval between two exercises, and performing lower-intensity exercises during the interval instead of taking a complete rest.
Plateau training method: As the level of exercise increases, while the exercise load continues to increase, we should focus on increasing the difficulty of training and giving the body stronger stimulation to mobilize the maximum potential of the human body. When training at altitude, people have to withstand the plateau The two loads of hypoxia and exercise hypoxia cause hypoxia to the body, which is more profound than on the plains. It can greatly mobilize the body's functional potential and cause the body to produce complex physiological effects and training effects.
Balance, agility, flexibility and coordination qualities
balance
Meaning: refers to the body's ability to automatically adjust and maintain a posture when it is moving or being acted upon by external forces.
physiological basis of balance
position sense organ
proprioceptor
visual organ
functional status
Assessment of balance ability
① Eyes-open dynamic balance test
②Static balance test with eyes open and closed
③Golden Rooster Independent Test
④Handstand test
⑤Balance instrument test
balance training training
vestibular function training
① Passive training method
②Active training method
③ Comprehensive training method
Proprioceptive function training
Visual organ function training
sensitive
Meaning: The ability for athletes to quickly change positions, switch actions and adapt to changes. Agility is the comprehensive performance of athletes, sports skills and various sports abilities during exercise. Its characteristic is that when the environment suddenly changes, the ability to adapt to changes can be completed. and create new actions
Physiological basis of sensitivity
①Functional state of cerebral cortex
②Functional status of sensory organs and effector organs
③Mastery of motor skills
Assessment of sensitivity
Traditional testing methods
burpee test
quadrant hop test
Sensitive measuring instrument
agility training
①Speciality in sports
② Combine strength and explosive training
③Special reaction training
④Avoid agility training when you are tired
Flexible
Meaning: The ability of the human body to complete large-scale movement skills during exercise. It has an important impact on the learning and mastering of difficult movement skills that are fast, powerful, easy and expressive.
Physiological basis of flexibility
① Structural characteristics of joints
②Stretchability of soft tissues around joints
③Volume of tissues around joints
④Coordination function of the central nervous system and muscle strength
Assessment of flexibility
Simple measurement method
upright forward bend test
neck flexibility test
shoulder rotation test
dorsiflexion test
hip flexibility test
knee flexibility test
Calf internal and external rotation test
ankle flexibility test
precise measurement method
angle measuring method
Isokinetic force measurement system
flexibility training
Stretch exercises
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation exercises
Principles of flexibility training
①Based on the joint structure: During flexibility exercises, the range allowed by the joint anatomy should not be exceeded to avoid joint damage.
② Combine with preparatory activities: Flexibility exercises should be combined with English preparatory activities. Preparatory activities can increase body temperature, reduce muscle viscosity, and improve muscle stretchability.
③Reasonable development of flexibility: According to the requirements of special skills, the development of flexibility is not bigger, the better, as long as it meets the requirements of the special skills and can successfully complete the movements.
④ Strengthen flexibility training in children and adolescents: Children and adolescents are the best period to develop flexibility. The older you are, the worse your flexibility is.
coordination
Meaning: refers to the ability of various organs and systems of the body to cooperate with each other in time and space to complete actions during human movement.
Physiological basis of coordination
①Coordination of the nervous system
②Coordination of skeletal muscles
③Coordination of sensory perception
Assessment of coordination
Since coordination involves the comprehensive functional performance of multiple systems and organs of the human body, there is currently no ideal method to evaluate coordination.
Training to develop coordination
Commonly used training methods include hip-waist circles, wave rises, jumping leg swings, step steps and high leg raises, jumping leg circles, jumping relaxation, running and jumping steps to shake the hips, side-by-side turns, etc.
Several new methods of physical fitness training
core strength training
Core area: refers to the middle area of the human body below the shoulder joint and above the hip joint, including the pelvis, including all muscle groups in the back, abdomen, and pelvis
Core strength: refers to a comprehensive strength generated by the contraction of muscles attached to the core area of the human body under the control of nerves
physiological basis
core stability
The division of muscles in the core area
Neuromuscular coordinated control
Core strength training methods
Characterized by core stability training, with the purpose of developing professional strength to complete technical movements in competitions, it targets strength, stability, balance and other ability training in the core area of the body, including core stability training and core specialized strength training.
Vibration training
Meaning: Also known as acceleration training, it refers to the method of using the vibration generated by the instrument as a load for physical training.
physiological basis
Effects of vibration on the body
neuromuscular recruitment
Vibration training methods
Generally speaking, the frequency of each group of exercises is 30 to 40 hz, the amplitude is 2 to 4 mm, and the time is 30 seconds. The order of changing difficulty is: duration, number of groups, ratio of exercise time to rest time, action, frequency, amplitude and bear weight
Respiratory muscle training
Meaning: It refers to enhancing the working ability of the ventilator by increasing breathing resistance. It is a training method to enhance athletic ability and improve athletic performance.
physiological basis
Respiratory muscles and exercise capacity
Trainability of respiratory muscles
Respiratory muscle training methods
Specialized training of respiratory muscles for a certain period of time every day can significantly improve lactate threshold power
hypoxic training
Meaning: refers to the method of using artificial hypoxic environment for training to improve athletes' aerobic capacity
Mechanisms to improve athletic ability
Improve blood oxygen transport capacity
Improve the ability of red blood cells to release oxygen
Improve cardiopulmonary function
Improve skeletal muscle metabolic capacity
hypoxic training
Classification
①Training from high to high
②Train from high to low
③Train from high to high and train low
④Practice from low to high
⑤Intermittent hypoxic training
method
①Simulated altitude and duration
②Monitoring of hypoxic training
Chapter 11 Exercise and Body Function Changes
Pre-match status and preparation activities in the first quarter
Pre-match status
Meaning: refers to the conditioned reflex changes in the organ system before competition or training.
Physiological changes in pre-competition status
Increased excitability of the nervous system, enhanced activity of internal organs, etc.
The mechanism of production
It can be explained by the theory of conditioned reflexes. The process is that scene information related to competition and training constantly stimulates athletes, and is combined with physiological changes during muscle activity. Over time, this information becomes conditioned stimulation. As long as the relevant information appears , the physiological changes before the game are expressed in the form of conditioned reflexes
Adjustments to pre-match status
Good pre-match form
Moderate excitement of the central nervous system is beneficial to improving the functional level of internal organs
Bad pre-match form
Excessive excitability of the central nervous system may cause adverse reactions
Ways to Overcome Online Adverse Reactions
Organize the content, intensity and pace of preparation activities
Change the training environment and increase competition experience
Improve psychological quality, etc.
Preparatory activities
Meaning: Physical exercises performed only before formal training and competition
Physiological effects
①Adjust the excitement level of the central nervous system
②Enhance the function of oxygen transport system
③Height and body temperature
④Reduce muscle viscosity
⑤Enhance skin blood flow
⑥Trace effect
Factors affecting the physiological effects of preparatory activities
content and form
Reasonably arrange and adjust the content of preparation activities
time
10 to 30 minutes is appropriate
strength
Under normal circumstances, the intensity is 45% O2 max, and the heart rate is 100 to 120 once per minute.
Time interval between formal training or competition
The interval between formal training or competition is 20min-30min
Section 2 Entering the working state and stable state
Enter working status
Meaning: In the initial stage of exercise, the functions of various organ systems of the human body cannot reach the highest level immediately, but there is a process of gradual improvement.
Reasons for entering working status
Performance
After exercise begins, the respiratory system, cardiovascular system and other internal organs act like the exercise system and produce a delayed reaction.
The main cause of physiological inertia of internal organs
① There are many autonomic synapses that innervate internal organs and their conduction speed is slow.
②The activities of internal organs are regulated by neurohumoral fluids, including many links
Main factors affecting entering work status
Work intensity, nature of work, personal characteristics, etc.
Pole and second breath
Extreme points and their causes
Extreme: refers to a state in which during strenuous exercise, the activity of internal organs in the initial stage of exercise cannot meet the needs of the exercise organs, and practitioners often produce some special physiological reactions.
Cause: Due to the physiological inertia of internal organs, oxygen uptake cannot meet oxygen demand.
The second breath and its causes
Second breath: After the peak occurs, rely on willpower and adjust the rhythm of exercise to continue exercising. The athlete can continue exercising in a better functional state.
cause
①The inertia of internal organs is gradually overcome, the oxygen supply is increased, and lactic acid is gradually eliminated
②After the peak occurs, the exercise intensity decreases, the oxygen demand per minute decreases, and the power set is restored.
Factors Affecting the Pole and the Second Breath
Sports items and exercise intensity: Periodic items with higher exercise intensity and longer duration have more obvious extreme reactions.
Training level: The lower the training level, the earlier the extreme occurs, the more obvious the response, and the longer the maintenance time.
Pre-race condition and preparation activities: Good pre-race condition and adequate preparation activities can delay the weakening point
steady state
It refers to the stage when the functional activities of the human body enter the working state and maintain a high functional state for a period of time.
Classification
true stable state
Meaning: refers to the state in which the body's oxygen uptake and oxygen demand can maintain a dynamic balance.
Performance: Mainly aerobic metabolism for energy supply
false steady state
Meaning: It means that the body's oxygen uptake has reached and stabilized at the maximum oxygen uptake level, but it cannot meet the body's oxygen demand, and the oxygen deficit continues to increase.
Performance: Relevant physiological indicators have basically reached and stabilized at extreme levels, lactic acid levels have increased, oxygen deficit has gradually accumulated, etc.
Section 3 Sports Fatigue
Meaning: refers to the state when the body cannot continue to perform at a specific level or maintain a predetermined intensity of exercise during exercise.
Classification: Different types are divided according to different classification basis, such as central fatigue, peripheral fatigue, local fatigue and overall fatigue, etc.
Features
Short-term maximum intensity exercise: ATP conversion rate decreases
Prolonged moderate-intensity exercise: energy reserve utilization process is inhibited
Non-Periodized and Mixed Exercises: Changing Techniques
Static exercises: continuous excitement of corresponding parts of the central nervous system, reduced blood supply to the muscles and decreased cardiovascular system function
The physiological mechanism that produces
peripheral mechanism
①Exhaustion hypothesis
②Blocking hypothesis
③Mutation hypothesis
④Hypothesis of internal environment stability imbalance
⑤Free radical hypothesis
central mechanism
①Protective inhibition hypothesis
②Motor circuit dysregulation hypothesis
Detection Indicator
Nervous system testing
①When reacting
②Skin space threshold
③Flash fusion frequency
Bioelectrical detection
①Electrocardiogram
②Electromyography
③Electroencephalogram
Detection of subjective exertion sensation
①Grade of subjective exertion feeling
②Specific measurement method
Detection of motion systems
①Judge the degree of fatigue based on muscle hardness
②Judge exercise fatigue by measuring ventilator endurance, muscle strength before and after exercise, and lower limb muscle dimensions
Section 4 Recovery Process
Meaning: refers to the process of gradual recovery and improvement of physiological functions of the human body during and after exercise, training and competition.
General law
Stage characteristics of the recovery process
Recovery during exercise: In the first stage, exercise causes the body’s energy consumption to exceed its synthesis.
Recovery after exercise: In the second stage, consumption decreases after exercise stops and recovery is dominant.
Excess recovery: the third stage, the energy substances consumed during exercise return to the original level after exercise, or even exceed the original level, and return to the original level after a period of time
Over recovery
Restoration of phosphagen
After exercise, phosphagen is restored quickly
Restoration of muscle glycogen stores
①Glycogen consumption. The greater the intensity of endurance exercise, the more glycogen is consumed and the longer the recovery time.
②Meal type, supplement high-fat and high-protein meals and high-sugar meals
Oxymyoglobin recovery
Oxymyoglobin is restored seconds after exercise
Elimination of lactic acid
① Shuttle within working muscles
②Through the shuttle of blood
Measures to facilitate the recovery process
Cleaning up activities: refers to some physical exercises done after formal practice. Through finishing activities, it helps to eliminate fatigue and increase muscle blood flow.
Nutritional means: Nutritional supplement is the material basis for recovery. The total intake of the three major nutrients, protein, fat, and sugar, should be based on meeting the body’s metabolic needs.
Physical means: Use medical physical means such as massage, physiotherapy, oxygen inhalation and acupuncture
Section 5: Off-training and peak state training
out of training
Meaning: Also known as training suspension, it refers to the phenomenon that previously formed adaptations will completely or partially disappear due to the reduction or cessation of training.
Effects on body functions
Effect on cardiopulmonary function
Performance: Detraining will reduce the cardiopulmonary function improved by exercise training
Implications: Athletes should pay special attention to maintaining endurance exercise levels during non-competition periods
Effects on several major physical qualities
Muscle strength and power
muscular endurance
Speed, sensitivity, flexibility
Several physiological issues that should be paid attention to
① Well-trained people have more losses after detraining than untrained people.
② After withdrawal from training, the decline in cardiorespiratory endurance is much greater than the decline in muscle endurance, strength and power.
③In order to maintain cardiorespiratory endurance, you should train at least three times a week, and the intensity of each training session should be at least 70% of the original normal training intensity.
④ Detraining can also lead to muscle atrophy, accompanied by a decrease in muscle strength and power.
peak state training
Meaning: A training method that reduces training load in the last few days before participating in a competition
Training load and training time
①Training load: Reduce training load
②Training time: Training time is mainly determined based on the sports event, sports environment and the needs of the athletes.
Function: Improve muscle strength, restore energy reserves, improve sports performance, etc.
Applicable items
Typical VO2 max sports using this training method include track and field, swimming, cycling, sailing, and triathlon.
Chapter 12 The formation of motor skills
Physiological basis of motor skills
Meaning: refers to people's ability to master and effectively complete specialized technical movements in sports. It is a muscle activity completed in accordance with certain technical requirements under the leadership of the cerebral cortex.
Classification
①Locked motor skills
②Open motor skills
physiological mechanism of formation
The formation and mechanism of exercise conditioned reflex
Establish temporary neural connections between relevant centers
physiological essence
① Multiple centers are involved, and reflex activities are complex
②Reflective activities are chained
③Proprioceptor impulse plays an important role
The process of developing motor skills
Classification
First, based on the characteristics of physiological changes when motor skills are formed, they are divided into generalization stage, differentiation stage, consolidation stage and automation stage.
The second is the different characteristics of movement performance. The formation of motor skills is divided into the stage of initiating and understanding movements, the stage of roughly mastering movements, the stage of improving and improving movements, and the stage of consolidation and easy application.
generalization stage
cause
The novel stimulation caused by new movement practice causes the excitation and inhibition processes of the relevant centers in the cerebral cortex to spread, leading to generalization.
Action performance
Movements are stiff and uncoordinated, there are many redundant and incorrect movements, and movements are incoherent and rhythmic.
Teaching points
①Use more intuitive teaching
②Use methods such as decomposition teaching to appropriately reduce the difficulty of movements
differentiation stage
cause
When learners practice the learned actions repeatedly, the nervous and inhibitory processes of the relevant centers in the cerebral cortex become increasingly differentiated and perfected, the inhibitory processes are strengthened, and the conditioned reflex activities move from generalization to differentiation.
Action performance
Muscles that should not be contracted will be relaxed, redundant movements will be gradually eliminated, wrong movements will be corrected, technical movements can be completed smoothly and coherently, and dynamic shaping will be initially formed.
Teaching points
① Deepen the understanding of the inner laws of movements and establish the concept of complete movements
② Strengthen correct actions and correct wrong actions in a timely manner
③Increase the difficulty of movements and establish more refined differentiation inhibition
Consolidation and Automation Phase
cause
After the differentiation stage, learners practice further and repeatedly, and their motor skills become increasingly consolidated and perfected. The nerves and will of the relevant centers of the cerebral cortex become more precise and concentrated in time and space.
Action performance
The movements are more accurate, coordinated and graceful, and some aspects of the movements are automated.
Teaching points
① Put forward further requirements for students and continuously improve the quality of movements
②Check the quality of movements frequently to prevent movement deformation
③Continue to practice and consolidate for a long time
Factors affecting the development of motor skills
Transfer of motor skills
Classification
positive migration
negative transfer
Precautions
① Sort out and analyze different types of skills
② Arrange the teaching sequence reasonably
③The impact of the number and proficiency of motor skills mastered on the transfer effect
The impact of sensory feedback
The role of sensory functions in the formation of motor skills
① Vision and proprioception: You can use vision to maintain balance and adjust muscle strength, thereby strengthening correct movements.
② Hearing and proprioception: Helps establish the force time and rhythm of correct movements
③Taste and proprioception: Utilizing positional functions and establishing connections with proprioception can promote the formation of motor skills
④ Skin sensation and proprioception: Playing on the interaction between skin sensation and proprioception helps to establish correct motor skills.
The role of feedback function in the formation of motor skills
effect
Provide information, enhance learning, and stimulate motivation
application
① Make full use of feedback teaching methods to improve learning effects
② Reasonably choose different feedback information
③ Make full use of feedback such as imagination and recall exercises to strengthen the mastery of movements
attention effects
method
① Reasonably arrange physical education teaching based on the limitations of attention ability
② Cultivate students’ ability to control attention
③Adjust the excitement state of cerebral cortex
Chapter 13 Age, Gender and Sports
Section 1 Children, Teenagers and Sports
growth and development
①Growth and development is a process from quantitative change to qualitative change
②Growth and development show stages and continuity
③Growth and development speed develops in waves
④Imbalance and unity of growth and development of various organ systems
Physiological characteristics
exercise system
Include
skeleton
joint
muscle
Things to note
① Pay attention to developing correct body posture
② Pay attention to comprehensive physical exercise
③Pay attention to the choice of sports venues
④ Use weight-bearing exercises with caution
⑤Pay attention to mineral supplements
⑥Pay attention to combining flexibility exercises with weight-bearing exercises
⑦ Pay attention to the balanced development of muscles
oxygen transport system
Include
blood
respiratory system
Cardiovascular System
Things to note
① Pay attention to the selection of items and load methods
② Pay attention to different treatment
③Gradually increase endurance training
④ Pay attention to mastering breathing methods
nervous system
feature
① The development of excitation and inhibition is uneven, and the excitatory process of the nervous system has a clear advantage between the ages of 6 and 13.
②Characteristics of the two signaling systems: During childhood, the first signaling system dominates neural activity, and after the age of nine, the second signaling system gradually improves.
③The stability of the nervous system during adolescence: temporary decline, manifested by the dominance of excitatory processes and a significant decrease in inhibitory processes.
Things to note
① Pay attention to increasing the fun
② Pay attention to strengthening intuitive teaching
③Pay attention to the differences between boys and girls
④ Pay attention to reducing the difficulty of the movements
physical fitness development
natural growth
stage
sensitive period
sequentiality
Section 2 Women and Sports
Physiological characteristics
physiological stage division
Early childhood: before 10-12 years old
Adolescence: 10 to 12 years old to about 18 years old
Sexual maturity: begins around 18 years old and lasts for 30 years
Menopause: 44-54 years old
Old age: after 60 years old
Physiological characteristics of exercise
Aerobic capacity: slightly lower than men
Anaerobic capacity: lower than men
Muscle strength: average about 2/3 of men
Flexibility: Better than men
Special Issues in Sports
menstrual period
① Menstrual cycle and exercise capacity: luteal phase > follicular phase, ovulation period > the first few days of the menstrual period and the middle of the menstrual period
②The impact of exercise on the menstrual cycle
Benefits of moderate exercise for menstruating women
Exercise intensity should not be too high, and exercise time should not be too long.
pregnancy
① In the first three months after pregnancy, long-term strenuous exercise should be avoided
② In the second and third trimesters of pregnancy, you can engage in low-intensity physical activity for no less than 30 minutes every day.
menopause
Proper exercise can promote hormone secretion and calcium absorption
Section 3 The Elderly and Physical Exercise
Effects of exercise on physiological functions of the elderly
Movement system: Delay the aging of the skeletal system, promote protein synthesis, maintain muscle volume and strength, and reduce the rate of aging
Oxygen transport system: Increase the strength and endurance of respiratory muscles, delay the aging process of the ventilator, and increase lung ventilation
Nervous system: Delays vascular sclerosis, enhances cardiovascular function, facilitates blood and oxygen supply to the brain, and prevents cerebral arteriosclerosis
Immune system: The degeneration of the thymus is slowed down, the activity of immune cells is increased, and chronic pharyngitis is difficult to form or develop.
Principles of fitness exercises for the elderly
health monitoring
step by step
self-monitoring
Chapter 14 Obesity, weight control and exercise prescription
Section 1 Overview of Body Composition
weight
Meaning: refers to the total weight of human bones, joints, muscles, ligaments and fat tissue
Classification
Fat weight
lean body mass
body composition
Meaning: refers to the total composition of various tissues and organs that make up the human body
Expression
Expressed as body fat percentage or lean body mass, body mass percentage = body fat weight/body weight × 100%
Body composition and weight control
Human health requires reasonable weight and body composition
Athletes need the right weight and body composition ratio to perform well
Ideal weight and body composition for the average adult
ideal body composition
The body fat percentage is within a reasonable range, and the proportion of body mass and lean body mass is appropriate.
Ideal weight and body composition for athletes
Ideal weight for athletes = 100 × lean body mass / (100 - ideal body fat percentage × 100)
Obesity and weight control
obesity
Obesity definition: It is a common, obvious, complex metabolic disorder that can affect the normal function of the entire body
the physiological basis of
Genetic factors: About 80% of children of obese parents are obese
Physiological factors: The nerve center has a weight setting point
Metabolic factors: rely more on sugar oxidation for energy rather than fat oxidation
Environmental and behavioral factors, poor lifestyle
Obesity detection
Obesity degree: Obesity degree (%) = [actual weight (kg)/standard weight (kg)-1] × 100%
Body mass index (BMI): BMI = weight (kg)/height (m2)
Waist-to-hip ratio WHR: If the waist-to-hip ratio is greater than or equal to 1.0 for men and greater than or equal to 0.85 for women, you must lose weight.
weight control
Principles and methods of maintaining a constant weight
Principle: Thermal energy balance
Method: Arrange the amount of food and physical activity according to living within your means and living within your means.
Principles and methods of weight loss
Principle: Energy expenditure is greater than energy intake
Methods: ① Control diet ② Exercise
Principles and methods of weight gain
Principle: Make the body's caloric intake greater than its exercise energy expenditure, so that the body's protein metabolism is in a positive nitrogen balance
method
①Exercise: Conducive to the increase of lean body mass
② Diet: Keep the body in a positive thermal balance
③Sleep: It is a growth hormone that promotes muscle growth
The physiological mechanism of exercise for weight loss
Endurance exercise burns fat
Moderate exercise reduces appetite
Increase basal metabolic rate
Inhibit lipogenesis
Exercise prescription
The concept and classification of exercise prescription
The concept of exercise prescription
It is a systematic and personalized exercise plan that determines the purpose of exercise, exercise form, exercise intensity, exercise time, exercise frequency and precautions in the form of a prescription based on the age, gender, health status and physical fitness level of the participants.
Classification
Fitness exercise prescription
Competitive sports prescription
Rehabilitation exercise prescription
Contents of exercise prescription
sport purpose
①Promote growth and development and improve physical fitness
②Enhance physical fitness, improve body adaptability, and delay aging
③Prevent and treat certain diseases, maintain health or restore certain functions
④Enrich life, regulate psychology, and improve quality of life
⑤ Master sports skills and methods to improve competitive level
Movement form
Meaning: refers to the specialized types of exercise or practice methods used based on the purpose of individual exercise prescriptions.
Category: ① Aerobic endurance sports ② Stretching exercises ③ Strength sports
exercise intensity
aerobic exercise intensity
Strength exercise intensity
Stretching exercise intensity
excercise time
Exercise duration
Set the exercise duration that can produce the best exercise effect for the body based on the purpose of exercise, exercise intensity, and personal age and physical conditions.
Arrangement of exercise time throughout the day
biological rhythm
Air environment during exercise
Movement frequency
Exercise 3 to 4 times a week, which is the optimal exercise frequency. The interval between two exercises should not exceed three days.
Formulation of exercise prescriptions
in principle
①Varies from person to person
②Effectiveness
③Safety
④Comprehensiveness
step
① General survey and filling out PAR-Q questionnaire
②Clinical health examination
③Physical fitness test
④Exercise test
⑤ Formulate exercise prescription
Implementation of exercise prescription
The implementation process of exercise prescription
Preparation Phase
Movement phase
finishing stage
Self-monitoring of exercise prescription implementation process
Heart rate measurement
blood pressure
weight
subjective feeling of exertion
Examples of exercise prescriptions
Exercise prescription for developing speed qualities
Exercise prescriptions for developing flexibility
Exercise prescription to develop cardiopulmonary function
Exercise prescription to enhance muscle strength
Chapter 15 Environment and Sports
Hot and cold environment and exercise
body temperature
normal body temperature
Body temperature: Clinically, rectal temperature (37.3 to 37.5 degrees Celsius, closest to body temperature), oral temperature (about 0.4 degrees Celsius lower than rectal temperature), axillary temperature (0.3 degrees Celsius lower than oral temperature)
Human body temperature characteristics
①No matter how the ambient temperature changes, body temperature always remains relatively stable
②The human body temperature fluctuates day and night, from 2 a.m. to 6 a.m., and the lowest from 14 p.m. to 17 p.m., and the maximum fluctuation amplitude generally does not exceed 1 degree Celsius.
thermogenic process
① Metabolic heat production
② Internal organs produce heat
③Exercise produces heat
④ Chills and heat production
⑤Thyroxine and catecholamine hormones produce heat
heat dissipation process
①Radiation
②Conduction
③Convection
④Evaporation
thermoregulation
thermoregulatory mechanism
Autonomous thermoregulation: refers to the body's body temperature being maintained at a relatively stable level by increasing or decreasing blood flow to the skin, sweating, chilling and other physical reactions under the control of the hypothalamus thermoregulatory center.
Behavioral thermoregulation: refers to the related behaviors of the body when it is in different temperature environments, especially the measures taken by people to keep warm or cool down, such as adding or removing clothes, etc.
Exercise and body temperature regulation
Effect of temperature on exercise
① If you exercise in a lower temperature environment, you will sweat a lot to maintain a constant body temperature.
② When exercising under high temperature conditions, sweating is the main condition for controlling body temperature stability.
Effects of dryness, humidity and fluidity of air on exercise
① If the air is completely dry and the convective air is enough to quickly evaporate sweat on the body surface, the human body can tolerate very high temperatures
②If the humidity is 100% and the air is not flowing, the temperature will be around 34℃, which will have adverse effects.
Cold environment and exercise
Cold damage type
freezing cold injury
Caused by short-term exposure to low and low temperatures or long-term exposure to low temperatures below freezing point
non-freezing cold damage
Often occurs in peripheral parts such as hands, feet, and earlobes
localized frostbite
Localized frostbite is most common in exposed peripheral locations, such as hands, feet, auricles, nose tips, heels, etc. After payment, it can be clinically divided into four degrees based on the degree of injury and manifestations.
Treatment and prevention of cold injuries
Treatment of cold injury
① Quickly remove the wounded from the low temperature environment
②Quick rewarming
Cold injury prevention
① Improve skin’s adaptability to cold
②Keep warm
Human body’s adaptation to cold environment
Cold habituation meaning
It refers to the phenomenon that after a certain period of exercise under low temperature conditions, the human body will increase its tolerance to low temperature and reduce its physiological response to low temperature. It is medically called low temperature acclimation or cold acclimation.
type
① Metabolic adaptation: The human body increases heat production by controlling the basal metabolic rate
②Adiabatic adaptation: long-term exposure to cold environment causes constriction of blood vessels on the body surface and increase in subcutaneous fat
③ Habitual hibernation type adaptation: The body continues to increase heat production in a cold environment for a long time and becomes accustomed to low temperatures.
Thermal environment and exercise
Thermal damage type
dehydration
It refers to the loss of body fluids, mostly accompanied by the loss of electrolytes, especially the loss of sodium ions. The clinical manifestation is a decrease in the amount of extracellular fluid.
heat cramps
It refers to skeletal muscle pain and spasm caused by the loss of minerals in the body and dehydration accompanied by heavy sweating when exercising in a hot environment for a long time.
heat exhaustion
It refers to blood circulation failure that occurs when working or exercising for a long time in a high-temperature environment.
heat stroke
It refers to the disorder of human body temperature regulation caused by high temperature, excessive accumulation of heat in the body, resulting in damage to nerve cells.
Treatment and Prevention of Thermal Injuries
Treatment of thermal injury
①Quickly cool down
②Replenish body fluids in time
Thermal injury prevention
①Avoid high temperature
②Use salty drinks to continuously replenish water and electrolytes
Adaptation of human body to thermal environment
Thermal acclimation: Being continuously or repeatedly detained in a high-temperature climate, the body will gradually adapt to this special climate condition, the stability against heat stress will be developed, the ability to tolerate the hottest heat will be improved, and a state of thermal adaptation will occur.
adaptive change
① Sweating
②The heart rate decreases and the stroke volume gradually increases
③Reduced fast and superficial breathing patterns
④Reduce oxygen consumption
water environment and sports
Effects of water environment exercise on human physiological functions
respiratory system
Changes in respiratory rate are limited
circulatory system
Lying down can reduce energy consumption of blood circulation
energy consumption
The lower the water temperature, the more energy is consumed
motor skill learning
Water buoyancy, etc. increase the difficulty of motor skills
Adaptation of human body to water environment
Improve the regulation ability of heat production and heat dissipation
Improve ventilation efficiency and maximum oxygen uptake
Improve cardiovascular system circulatory function
Improve the body’s ability to withstand cold
Plateau environment and sports
Characteristics of plateau environment
Low air pressure, low oxygen, high cold and high ultraviolet radiation
Impact on athletic ability
① Disadvantages for long-duration endurance events
②It is beneficial to speed projects that do not last long
③ Advantages and disadvantages for explosive projects
Human body's response to high temperature environment
① Respiratory response: Blood oxygen content decreases, and the oxygen exchange rate between blood and muscles decreases.
②Cardiovascular reaction: The number of red blood cells continues to rise, the blood thickens, and the stroke volume and heart rate increase
③Altitude sickness: headache, dizziness, vertigo, tinnitus, general weakness, difficulty walking and falling asleep, acute pulmonary edema and acute cerebral edema
Adaptation: Acclimation to plateau
Concept: It refers to the phenomenon that a few days or weeks after reaching the plateau, the body makes corresponding adjustments to the lower oxygen partial pressure environment in the air, resulting in a certain degree of adaptation.
Classification
① Short-term adaptation: changes in acid-base balance and hemoglobin improve the regulation of pulmonary ventilation and oxygen binding ability
②Long-term adaptation: improvement of oxygen transport capacity, cell metabolism efficiency, and vascular distribution in muscles
Atmospheric environment and sports
air pollution
The meaning of atmospheric environmental pollution: refers to changes in human activities and natural processes that cause certain or harmful substances to escape into the atmosphere and endanger the comfort, health and welfare of the human body.
Four major elements of atmospheric environmental pollution
Domestic pollution sources
industrial pollution sources
Traffic pollution sources
Agricultural pollution sources
Main pollutants
particulate pollutants
gaseous pollutants
secondary pollutants
Hazards to human health
Atmospheric pollutants entering the body can cause diseases and illnesses in multiple organ systems such as human respiratory, circulatory, and nervous systems.
The main cause of disease is the contamination of human body by pathogenic chemical substances, radioactive substances and biological substances in atmospheric environmental pollutants.
Air pollution and sports
Patients with heart disease and lung disease have significantly aggravated symptoms, reduced exercise tolerance, and reduced ability to continue exercising, causing the training effects to fade.
Biorhythms and exercise
Biological rhythms and their mechanisms
meaning
In the living body, various functional activities often appear repeatedly in a certain time sequence, showing rhythmic changes.
Classification
high frequency rhythm
medium frequency rhythm
low frequency rhythm
constitute
biological rhythm
Biological rhythm is a rhythm that is synchronized with the environment due to changes in the biological environment.
possible mechanism
①Pacemaker meaning: refers to the biological rhythm center that controls periodic changes in biological functions
②Key pacemaker: the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus
③Secondary biological rhythm pacemaker: present in the ventral median nucleus and lateral hypothalamus region of the hypothalamus
④Others: The pineal gland of animals may also be a biological rhythm pacemaker
significance
It is the ability of biological organisms to make early adaptations to changes in the external environment.
Make all physiological functions and body activities proceed in an orderly and rhythmic manner
Biological Rhythms and Exercise Ability
Rhythmic Characteristics of Physical Energy
Circadian rhythms of local muscle strength and neuromuscular coordination are synchronized with body temperature rhythms
asynchronous synthesis
When certain external environments undergo acute changes, they can cause temporary biological rhythm imbalance in the body.
Adjustments to biological rhythms based on competition
Differences in location and time difference will interfere with the original biological rhythms of athletes and reduce their athletic ability.
Adjustment of biological rhythms for athletes
meaning
It refers to the process of changing time and environmental information to cause corresponding changes in the original biological rhythm characteristics of the body.
Time difference adjustment
According to the changing characteristics of the body's time structure, a series of chronobiological measures are taken in a targeted manner to proactively overcome jet lag and accelerate the process of adaptation.
preadaptation
Meaning: refers to the time difference adjustment in the country before departure
Adjustment method: semi-closed, fully open
Factors Affecting Preadaptive Adjustment
flight direction
Number of time zones across
Athletes' Neurotypes
post-adaptation
meaning
Refers to the time difference adjustment after arriving at the game
Main features
Time difference adjustment in a natural new time environment
Things to pay attention to
Get enough sleep
Invest in adaptive training promptly
Mobilize athletes’ subjective initiative