MindMap Gallery general psychology
Regarding all chapters of general psychology, the introduction is detailed and the description is comprehensive. I hope it can help those who are interested in learning.
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This is a mind map about bacteria, and its main contents include: overview, morphology, types, structure, reproduction, distribution, application, and expansion. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
This is a mind map about plant asexual reproduction, and its main contents include: concept, spore reproduction, vegetative reproduction, tissue culture, and buds. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
This is a mind map about the reproductive development of animals, and its main contents include: insects, frogs, birds, sexual reproduction, and asexual reproduction. The summary is comprehensive and meticulous, suitable as review materials.
Chapter One Introduction
Section 1 Research Objects of Psychology
individual psychology
mental process
cognitive process
The process of people objectively understanding things is the most basic psychological process of human beings
emotion affective process
Common psychological activities that play a driving role in people's psychological and behavioral activities
volitional process
The psychological process of consciously determining goals, overcoming difficulties, and achieving goals is will.
personality differences
psychological tendency
psychological tendency of people to carry out activities
Including interests, needs, motivations
psychological characteristics
Characteristics that appear frequently and stably in psychological activities
Temperament, character, ability
social psychology
People are social and form various relationships with others
Help people better adapt to group life and participate in social activities
The relationship with individual psychology is personality and commonality
Like individuals, they have needs, values, will, etc.
Section 2 The Essence of Psychology
Two opposing psychological views
Idealistic psychological outlook - independent existence without dependence on matter
Subjective idealism psychological view
Make up some kind of material, disembodied self, and regard it as the only real existence and the origin of the world
Objective idealistic psychological view
Make up some kind of objective spirit that is separated from matter and any individual as the master of all things.
Materialistic view of psychology - existence dependent on matter
Mind arises from matter
Psychological activities are caused by external things acting on people
Mind arises from body
The mind comes from the body, but which body part is not specified
Mind arises from specific organs of the body
heart
brain
scientific view of psychology
Psychology is the function of the brain
The history of species development proves that psychological phenomena arise with the emergence of the nervous system and develop with the development of the nervous system
Modern scientific research shows that psychology is a function of the brain
The process of ontogeny shows that human psychology develops with the development of the brain
Reflection is the basic way of psychological production
Concepts of reflection, reflex arc and reflection ring
Reflex refers to the regular response of an organism to internal and external stimuli through the nervous system.
The neural structure that realizes reflex activity is called the reflex arc - composed of receptors, afferent nerves, nerve centers, efferent nerves, and effectors
The reflex loop is the incoming-outgoing-feedback incoming-re-outgoing circuit structure of the nervous system.
Type of reflection
Unconditioned reflex - a reflex that is inherited and born with
Conditioned reflex - acquired, formed through learning
Classical conditioning - neutral stimulus elicits unconditioned reflex
operant conditioning-instrumental conditioning
Similarities: Reinforcement and normal activity of the nervous system are the basic conditions; Differences: operability is formed by one's own active activities or operations, while classics are passive reception of stimuli.
Two signaling systems
The first signaling system - the conditioned reflex system caused by specific stimuli
Second signaling system - the conditioned reflex system caused by words as conditioned stimuli
Psychology is a reaction to objective reality
Objective reality is the content and source of human psychological activities
Psychology is the subjective and active reflection of the human brain on objective reality
Human psychology occurs and develops in practical activities
Section 3 The Development of Psychology
ancient psychological thought
The development of modern psychology
The historical background of the development of modern psychology
The influence of modern philosophical trends—rationalism and empiricism, the theoretical basis of modern Western psychology
The influence of experimental physiology—the source of experimental methods in modern psychology
Influence of Biology—Evolutionary Perspectives Become an Important Topic in Scientific Psychology
The birth of psychology
In 1879, German psychologist Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany, which became an independent discipline.
Main schools of modern psychology
Structural psychology school, the founder is Wundt, Titchener is the representative figure
Studying Consciousness: Feelings, Images, and Passions
The school of functional psychology was founded by James of the United States and represented by Dewey and Angel.
Studying consciousness is a continuous process
Behavioral Psychology School, Watson
Research behavior, advocate experimental methods
Failure to study the internal structure and process of psychology, denying consciousness, and limiting development
Gestalt psychology school, founders Wertheimer and Koffka
Study the human perception process and believe that the whole exists before the parts
School of psychoanalysis, founded by Freud
Analyze abnormal behavior and study the unconscious, human and social behaviors stemming from desire or motivation, especially sexual impulses
Research Trends in Contemporary Psychology
Research on physiological psychology
Research questions: Localization of brain function, psychoimmunology (relationship of thoughts and emotions to physical health), role of genetics in behavior
behavioral psychology research
Research: programmed learning, behavioral therapy (learning theory applied to psychological disorders), biofeedback
psychoanalytic research
Research: Psychoanalysis applied to personality and motivation, emphasizing the importance of consciousness and self
Cognitive Psychology Research
Research: Cognitive processes, cognitive neuroscience (brain mechanisms, the relationship between cognition and nervous system activity, brain development and the development of cognitive functions
Research in humanistic psychology
Research: Personality
The development history of psychology in my country
The founding of modern psychology in China began in 1917
Section 4 Research Principles and Methods of Psychology
Research Principles of Psychology
principle of objectivity
Respect objective facts and do not rely on subjective assumptions to affirm or deny certain conclusions.
developmental principle
Adhere to the perspective of development and conduct dynamic research on changes in psychological activities
systematic principle
Adhere to a systematic and holistic perspective: unify factor analysis, correlation analysis, and integrated research; vertical research and horizontal unification; combine structural research and functional research
Humanistic Care Principles
Observe professional ethics, respect subjects, and care for subjects
psychological research methods
Observation
A method of systematically observing and recording the behavior of the observed in natural situations or pre-set situations and then analyzing it to obtain the rules of the generation and development of psychological activities.
Experimental Method
According to the research purpose, planned and strict control or creation of certain conditions, actively inducing or changing the psychological activities of subjects for analysis and research: laboratory experiment method and natural experiment method
Survey
Methods that require respondents to answer their thoughts or practices on a certain question to analyze and speculate on the psychological activities of subjects: questionnaire method, scale method, interview method and related methods
case approach
A method of conducting systematic research on one or several research objects over a long period of time
work analysis
A method of analyzing and studying subjects’ various activities, such as paintings, diaries, compositions or other works, to understand the level, characteristics and personality psychological characteristics of their psychological activities.
Chapter 2 Neurophysiological Basis of Psychological Activity
Section 1 Neuron
Structure and function of neurons
basic structure of neurons
Structurally divided into soma and neurite
Functional divisions of neurons
Input area, integration area, impulse conduction area, output area
Types of neurons
Classification according to the morphology of neurons: unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons, multipolar neurons
Classification according to the function of neurons: sensory neurons, motor neurons, communication neurons
Classification based on the length of neuronal axons: Golgi type I cells and Golgi type II cells
Classification based on the transmitter released by neurons: cholinergic neurons, noradrenergic neurons, dopaminergic neurons, serotonergic neurons, GABAergic neurons
nerve fibers
Structure and function of nerve fibers
Composed of the axons or dendrites of neurons, myelin sheaths, and neural membranes; functional and influencing effects
Classification of nerve fibers
According to the differences in conduction velocity and back potential, the peripheral nerve fibers of mammals are divided into three categories: A, B, and C.
Axoplasmic transport of nerve fibers
Material transport and exchange must occur frequently between the axon and the cell body: fast axoplasmic transport and slow axoplasmic transport
Glial cells
Glial cell structure and morphology
Can have the ability to classify and multiply for life
Types of glial cells
Glial cells in the central nervous system
astrocytes
oligodendrocytes
a
Glial cells in the nervous system
Neural cells and satellite cells
Electrophysiological properties of glial cells
membrane potential
Depolarization and repolarization
connections between glial cells
Main functions of glial cells
support role
insulation
barrier effect
nutritional effect
repair and regeneration
Maintain the K balance of neuronal Zhouwei
community neurotransmitter
conduction of nerve impulses
resting potential
When a cell is stimulated, the potential difference that exists between the inside and outside of the cell membrane
Action potential
When a cell is stimulated, a brief, expanding potential change occurs based on the resting potential.
Synapses and information transmission
Synapse structure: The site where two neurons or neurons and effector cells contact each other and transmit information.
Types of synapses: axon-dendrite synapse, axon-cell body synapse, axon-axon synapse.
transmission of information between synapses
Synaptic delay: presents a certain time delay
Transmission at electrical synapses: bidirectional transmission
neural circuit
Local circuit neurons and local neuronal circuits
reflex arc
It consists of five parts: receptors, afferent nerves, central part of the nervous system, efferent nerves and effectors.
Section 2 Nervous System
The structure of the nervous system
Central Nervous System
spinal cord, brain
peripheral nervous system
cranial nerves, spinal nerves, autonomic nerves
peripheral nervous system
cranial nerve
There are 12 pairs of peripheral nerves directly connected to the brain; they are divided into three categories: sensory, motor, and mixed.
spinal nerve
It originates from the spinal cord and exits through the intercone foramen. There are 31 pairs in total.
autonomic nerve
Involuntary nerves are the nerves that innervate the smooth muscles, myocardium and glands of internal organs, including sympathetic nerves and parasympathetic nerves
Central Nervous System
spinal cord
It is the pathway between peripheral nerves and the brain, and is the low-level center for many simple reflex activities.
Function: flexor reflex and contralateral extensor reflex, stretch reflex
brain
Brainstem: A smaller part located between the spinal cord and diencephalon, located below the brain. The medulla oblongata of the brainstem is connected to the spinal cord and forms an irregular columnar shape. The brainstem consists of three parts: the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain.
Diencephalon: Developed from the forebrain, it is located between the brainstem and the cerebrum. Its volume is less than 2% of the central nervous system, but its structure and function are very complex, ranking second to the cerebral cortex. 5 parts: dorsal thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus, posterior thalamus and subthalamus.
Cerebellum: Located behind the cerebral hemispheres, covering the pons and medulla oblongata, spanning between the midbrain and medulla oblongata. The second largest structure after the brain. Main functions: Influence the initiation, planning and coordination of movement, including determining the force, direction and range of movement.
Limbic system: The inner surface of the cerebral hemisphere, the connection between the brainstem and the corpus callosum. It is composed of the cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, hippocampus and dentate gyrus. The function of the limbic system is relatively complex and related to visceral activity, emotional response, and memory function.
Brain: Also known as the telencephalon, it is the main part of the advanced nervous system of vertebrates, consisting of the left and right hemispheres. It is an advanced nervous system that controls movement, generates sensations and realizes advanced brain functions.
Section 3 The structure and function of the left and right hemispheres of the brain
Cerebral cortex divisions and their functions
primary sensory area
Body sensory area: The highest level center is mainly located in the postcentral gyrus of the cerebral cortex.
Visual area: Located in the occipital lobe behind the parieto-occipital fissure, it receives nerve impulses input from the eyes under the action of light stimulation and produces primary forms of vision.
Auditory area: Located in the transverse temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe, it receives nerve impulses from the ears under sound stimulation and produces primary forms of hearing.
Junior sports area
The motor areas of the cerebral cortex are closely related to body movements. Stimulating these areas can cause the contraction of certain muscles on the opposite side. Located in the anterior central gyrus.
speech area
Speech motor center (Broca's center): located behind and below the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere, near the Sylvian fissure. Speech defect called expressive aphasia (motor aphasia)
Speech and hearing center (Wernicke's center): located above the temporal lobe, close to the occipital lobe. Aphasia caused by damage becomes receptive aphasia.
Union District
The first basic skill association area is located in the brainstem reticular structure, diencephalon, and inner part of the cerebral cortex, and is formed in the form of a non-specific neural network.
The second basic functional association area is located in the back part of the two hemispheres, including the visual area (occipital lobe), auditory area (temporal lobe) and general sensory area (parietal lobe), as well as the corresponding subcortical tissue, composed of cortical and subcortical neurons. .
The third basic functional association area is located in the front of the cerebral hemisphere and in front of the central sulcus. It works hierarchically according to the same principle as the second association area. The difference is that contrary to the second association area, nerve impulses are transferred by the third-level cortical area. Go to the second-level cortex, and then upload it to the first-level cortex area.
Dominance of one side of the brain's two hemispheres
Discovery of functional differences between the two hemispheres of the brain
Broca's Brain Area Study: Research on aphasia leads to understanding of left and right brains
Split-brain study: The main connection between the two hemispheres of the brain (the corpus callosum). Research on the two hemispheres of split-brained people shows that things experienced, learned, and remembered in one separate hemisphere cannot be transferred to the other hemisphere. Each hemisphere has its own consciousness, thoughts, and concepts, and its own experiences and memories cannot be recalled by the other hemisphere.
Functional differences between the two hemispheres of the brain
The left hemisphere is the dominant hemisphere for language and is mainly responsible for speech, reading, writing, mathematical operations and logical reasoning.
The dominant function of the right hemisphere is in image thinking and perception. It has extraordinary perception of music, art, dance, etc., and has strong spatial imagination.
brain function theory
positioning theory
electrical stimulation research method
Overall
French Pierre believed that intelligence is the function of the whole brain
functional system theory
Luria believes that the brain is a dynamic functional system. When individual environments are damaged, higher-level psychological functions are affected. Human psychology and behavior are the result of the interaction and coordinated activities of three functional systems. There is a power system; an information receiving, processing and storage system; and a behavioral regulation system.
Module says
It is believed that the human brain is composed of highly specialized and relatively independent modules in terms of function and structure. The complex and ingenious combination of these modules is the basis for realizing complex and sophisticated cognitive functions.
Section 4 Endocrine glands and neuro-humoral regulation
endocrine gland concept
It is a type of ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into peripheral blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. It plays a very complex and important regulatory role in the growth and development, functional activities, and metabolism of various organs in the body.
Endocrine glands include pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, thymus, pancreatic islets, adrenal glands, gonads, etc.
Classification of major endocrine glands and their functions
The pituitary gland hangs from the bottom of the brain and is divided into adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. The premise is glandular tissue and the thick layer is nervous tissue.
The thyroid gland is composed of many acini, secretes thyroid hormones, and regulates basic physiological processes of metabolism, growth, and development.
The adrenal glands are located at the upper end of the kidneys, one on each side. It is divided into two layers: the outer layer is the cortex, and the inner layer is called the medulla. The outer layer secretes mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones, collectively called adrenocortical hormones.
The gonads are testicles in males and ovaries in females. The testicles secrete male hormones and the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone
neuro-humoral regulation
Body fluid regulation means that certain cells in the body produce certain special chemicals, which are transported by blood circulation to reach various organs and tissues in the body or a certain organ and tissue, thereby causing certain special reactions in this organ and tissue.
The nervous system affects the activity of effector organs through various hormones of the endocrine glands, becoming neuro-humoral regulation, with direct and indirect regulation.
Chapter 3 Attention
Section 1 Note Overview
concept of attention
Attention is a mental activity or the pointing and concentration of consciousness on a certain object.
Two characteristics: directivity and concentration.
Attention itself is not an independent psychological process, but a common characteristic of various psychological processes. Attentional activities are not performed alone, but are performed in conjunction with other mental activities.
Attention function
Selection function: Selecting information so that mental activities have a variety of stimuli that are meaningful, in line with needs, and consistent with current activity tasks.
Maintenance function: Certain information is selected for attention, and mental activities process it to complete the corresponding task.
Regulatory and supervisory functions: Make people's psychological activities proceed in a certain direction and goal, and improve the level of consciousness, so that psychological activities can appropriately allocate attention and timely transfer according to needs, and correct mistakes when necessary.
external manifestations of attention
Adaptive movement: Attention occurs when the relevant sense organs are directed toward a stimulus
Irrelevant movement stops: When concentration is high, irrelevant movement will temporarily stop
Breathing changes: Breathing will become slight and slow, and exhalation will become shorter and inhalation will become longer.
The relationship between attention and consciousness
The difference between attention and consciousness: Attention is a kind of psychological activity or "mental action", while consciousness is mainly a kind of psychological content or experience; attention is more active and easy to control, while consciousness is sometimes unconscious.
The connection between attention and consciousness: When people are in a state of conscious attention, the content directed by their attention is generally at the center of conscious activities, and the content of consciousness is relatively clear.
Neural mechanisms of attention
Orientation reflection: a complex and special reflection caused by the novelty of the situation. It is the most basic physiological mechanism.
Brainstem reticular formation: refers to a diffuse neural network from the upper end of the spinal cord to the thalamus. Attention must be carried out when the organism is in an awakened state, and the activation of the network puts the brain in an awakened state. Without the pervasive activation of brain activity caused by the reticular formation, attention would not be possible
Limbic system: Some structures closely related to attention. The hippocampus is considered an important part of the filter, and disruption of these parts can cause serious impairments in selective attention.
Cerebral cortex: The highest part that generates attention is the cerebral cortex; attention is also closely related to the parietal lobe of the brain. Patients with parietal lobe damage will have hemilateral neglect.
Section 2 Types of Attention
Unintentional attention, intentional attention and post-intentional attention
unintentionally paying attention
It refers to the realization of attention that has no predetermined purpose and does not require volitional effort. It is a passive attention and a primary form of attention.
Reason: Characteristics of the stimulus and the state of the attentive person
Characteristics of stimuli: intensity, contrast, activity and change, novelty
The state of the payer: needs and interests, expectations, the payer’s emotional and mental state at the time, knowledge and experience
pay attention intentionally
Intentional attention refers to attention that has a predetermined purpose and requires a certain amount of will effort.
Conditions and methods for attracting and maintaining intentional attention
Deepen understanding of the purpose and tasks of activities
develop indirect interest
Organize activities properly
The combination of the brain's intellectual activities and external behavioral activities is conducive to attracting and maintaining intentional attention
Put forward certain self-requirements according to the needs of the task, and often remind yourself to pay attention
Asking questions helps reinforce intentional attention
Improve anti-interference ability
Pay attention after intending to
Refers to something that has a predetermined purpose in advance and does not require the attention of willpower.
It has certain characteristics of both unintentional and intentional attention.
Selective attention, focused attention and distributed attention
According to the function of attention, attention can be divided into selective attention, concentrated attention and distributed attention.
selective attention
Refers to individuals paying attention to limited information at the same time and ignoring other information.
focused attention
It means that our consciousness is not only directed to a certain stimulus, but also focused on a certain stimulus.
distributed attention
Refers to the individual's ability to pay attention to several different tasks or to perform several tasks at the same time
Endogenous attention and exogenous attention
Endogenous attention allocates attention based on the observer's behavioral goals or intentions.
Exogenous attention is the orientation of attention caused by information outside the observer's field of vision.
external attention and internal attention
According to the objects directed by attention, attention can be divided into external attention and internal attention.
External attention refers to people's attention to surrounding things, which is often performed simultaneously with perception. It is also called perceptual attention and plays an important role in exploring the external world.
Internal attention is attention to one's own psychological activities. People can gain insight into their own inner state and ensure the progress of various psychological activities.
Section 3 The quality of attention
attention span
Also known as the scope of attention, the number of objects of attention that can be clearly grasped at the same time is the spatial characteristic of the quality of attention.
Factors affecting attention span: characteristics of the attention object, nature and tasks of the activity, individual knowledge and experience
attention to stability
It is called the persistence of attention, which refers to the length of time that attention is maintained on the same object or activity.
Attention stability in a narrow sense refers to the time that attention is maintained on the same object.
In the broad sense, attention stability refers to the time that attention remains on the same activity. In the broad sense, the specific object of attention can continue to change, and the general direction of attention-directed activities remains unchanged.
Note that there are age differences and individual differences in stability
Factors affecting the stability of attention: characteristics of the object of attention, mental state of the subject, and willpower of the subject
allocation of attention
Direct attention to different objects and activities at the same time
Note that the assignment is conditional
Proficiency and automation of concentrated activities performed simultaneously
Simultaneous concentrated activities are intrinsically linked
related to the nature of several activities being carried out simultaneously
Shift of attention
Actively shift attention from one object to another according to activity tasks and requirements
The specialty of attention is to purposefully and proactively change the object of attention
Factors affecting transfer: degree of concentration of attention on the original activity, attraction of the new object of attention, clear signal prompts, individual neural type and self-control ability
Section 4 The Theory of Attention
attentional choice theory
Filter model theory has also become the focus of early selection models and single-channel models.
The representative British psychologist Broadbent believes that the nervous system is limited in its capacity to process information, and it is impossible to process all sensory stimuli. When information enters the nervous system through various sensory channels, it must first After a filtering mechanism, only part of the information can be received for further processing through this mechanism, and other information is blocked.
Filters work in an "all-or-none" manner, passing information through one channel while closing other channels.
Challenge: Unable to explain phenomena such as human information processing and allocated attention to meaningful materials
Decay model theory, also known as mid-term selection model
American psychologist Treisman proposed that the overall body's processing capacity is limited and that there is some kind of filter in the information processing system.
The filter works in an attenuating manner and assumes that many channels can process information to varying degrees.
Filters include peripheral filters (differential selection) and central filters
Late selection model theory is also known as complete processing theory, response selection theory, and memory selection theory.
Contributed by Morton Deutsch and revised by Norman. It is believed that all selective attention occurs in the late stage of information processing, and the filter is located between perception and working memory.
All information in the early stage is not selective. Some information is noticed and other information is not. This is a response choice based on the importance of the information.
The modified model assumes that information reaches long-term memory and activates items in it, and then is processed by working memory, emphasizing central control processes.
It can explain the phenomenon of attention allocation well, but it cannot explain the phenomenon of early selection well.
multi-stage choice theory
Johnston proposed a more flexible model, believing that the selection process may occur at different processing stages.
Hypothesis 1. The more processing stages there are before making a choice, the more cognitive processing resources are required.
Assumption 2. The stage at which selection occurs depends on the needs of the current task
cognitive resource theory
limited resources theory
Presented by Daniel Kahneman. It is believed that human cognitive resources are limited. When the recognition of stimuli is completely occupied, the row of stimuli will not be processed. But people can flexibly adjust the allocation of cognitive resources and transfer limited resources to important stimuli.
Theoretical hypothesis: The input stimulus itself does not automatically occupy resources, but the cognitive system has a mechanism responsible for allocating important resources.
Cognitive resource theory emphasizes our control of attention. This theory can reasonably explain some phenomena seen in daily life
dual process theory
Schefflin proposed based on the theory of limited resources of attention, which believed that there are two types of human cognitive processing: automatic processing and processing controlled by consciousness.
Automated processing is not limited by cognitive resources, does not require attention, and is performed automatically. Processing controlled by consciousness is limited by cognitive resources, requires attention, and can be continuously adjusted as the environment changes.
Chapter 4 Feeling
Section 1 Overview of Feelings
concept of feeling
Feeling is the individual reflection of objective matters that the human brain directly acts on the sensory organs.
Feeling is the response of the nervous system to external stimuli. Like all psychological phenomena, it has a reflex nature.
properties of feeling
Susceptibility, the ability to feel appropriate stimuli, is divided into absolute susceptibility and differential susceptibility
Sensory threshold refers to the range of stimulation that causes sensation, which is divided into absolute sensory threshold and differential sensory threshold.
The relationship between sensation and stimulation
Fechner's law of logarithms: The intensity of psychological sensations is proportional to the logarithm of physical stimulus intensity. Stimulus intensity increases in a geometric progression, while sensory intensity only increases in an arithmetic progression. Applicable only to the medium-intensity stimulus range, the assumed minimum perceptible difference is subjectively quite refuted by the facts
Stevens's multiplication law: The relationship between stimulus intensity and sensory size is studied using quantity estimation method. It is believed that the psychological quantity does not increase with the logarithm of the stimulus quantity, but changes with the power function of the stimulus quantity, that is, the perceived size is proportional to the power of the stimulus quantity.
neural processing of sensory information
Stimulation process: The first step in sensory information processing is the stimulation process of receptors. The active exploration activity of sensory organs is one of the necessary conditions for sensory information processing.
Afferent nerve activity: the second link in sensory information processing, which transmits nerve impulses to the center. The transmission process of nerve impulses is also the encoding process of sensory information processing.
Activity in the cerebral cortex: the final step in the processing of sensory information, resulting in feelings
the role of feeling
Feeling is the primary stage of human cognitive activities and the beginning of human understanding of the objective world.
Feeling is the basis of all higher and more complex psychological phenomena and the basis of all human psychological activities.
Senses provide information about the internal and external environment
Feeling ensures the information balance between the body and the environment
Section 2 Types of Feelings
Vision
visual stimulation
The adaptive stimulus of vision is light, which is visible light that humans can see.
physiological mechanism of vision
Refractive mechanism: The refractive system is composed of cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous body, and has light transmission and refraction functions.
Photoreceptor mechanism: The visual photoreceptor mechanism is the retina
Transmission mechanism: The visual transmission pathway has third-level neurons
Central mechanism: The direct projection area is the striate area of the occipital lobe of the brain.
Feedback regulation mechanism: efferent innervation, feedback regulation of visual organs
visual phenomenon
Lightness and visual brightness: Brightness is the eye’s perception of the lightness and darkness of the light source and object surface, which is mainly determined by the intensity of the light; visual brightness refers to the sensory continuum from a white surface to a black surface.
Visual acuity: The ability of the visual system to distinguish the smallest objects or object details. It can generally be divided into minimum visible visual acuity, vernier acuity, and minimum interval acuity.
Color: Color is the visual experience caused by the action of light waves on the human eye. Color has three characteristics, namely chroma, lightness and saturation. The color vision experience obtained under the color mixing effect becomes color mixing
Color vision theory: A theory that explains color vision phenomena and their mechanisms. There are three colors theory and oppositional process theory
Color vision defects: color weakness and color blindness. Color weakness has poor color discrimination ability in the red and green areas of the spectrum; color blindness is divided into partial color blindness and total color blindness.
Visual afterimage: After the stimulus stops acting on the receptor, the feeling does not disappear immediately but remains for a short period of time. This phenomenon is called afterimage. Divided into two types: positive afterimage and negative afterimage.
Flash fusion: If intermittent stimulation reaches a certain frequency, the afterimage can cause these intermittent stimulations to cause continuous sensations. This phenomenon is called flash fusion. The minimum frequency that just causes a continuous sensation is called the critical flash fusion frequency
hearing
auditory stimulation
Auditory stimulation: The suitable stimulation for hearing is sound waves in a certain frequency range. Sound waves have three physical characteristics: frequency, amplitude and waveform.
Physiological mechanism of hearing
The structure and function of the ear: The ear is the human hearing organ, which consists of three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.
The conduction mechanism and central mechanism of hearing: The auditory conduction pathway is composed of third-level neurons
auditory phenomena
Three-tone phenomenon: When hearing occurs, there are three phenomena: pitch, sound and timbre.
Mixing of sounds: When sounds of different intensities and frequencies act on people's auditory organs, people will hear different sounds. Common ones include beat tones, differential tones and harmonic tones.
Masking of sounds: The phenomenon whereby a sound causes an upper limit on the hearing threshold due to interference from other sounds acting simultaneously. It is divided into three categories: pure tone masking pure tone, noise masking pure tone, and pure tone and noise masking speech.
auditory theory
Frequency theory: Lo Felder proposed that the basilar membrane of the inner ear vibrates at the same frequency as the stapes. This theory cannot explain people's analysis of sound frequencies.
Resonance theory: Helmholtz proposed that the transverse fibers of the basilar membrane are of different lengths, being narrower near the base of the cochlea and wider near the top of the cochlea. Research shows that this theory is insufficient and the transverse fiber length ratio is only 10:1
Traveling wave theory: Von Bexy proposed that when sound waves reach the ear, they will cause the entire basilar membrane to vibrate. This theory cannot explain the effect of sounds below 500 Hz on the basilar membrane.
Nerve salvo theory: Weaver believed that when the sound is lower than 400 Hz, the firing frequency of individual fibers of the auditory nerve corresponds to the frequency of the sound. Can only explain the hearing of sounds below 5000 Hz
Skin feeling
tactile pressure
The feeling caused by evenly distributed pressure on the skin, divided into two types: touch and pressure.
Two-point discrimination threshold: the minimum distance at which a person can distinguish two points on the skin. The skin part is different, and the two point thresholds are also different.
temperature sense
Thermosensory The skin's sensation of cold and warm stimulation. Divided into cold sense and warm sense
pain
Pain is the sensation produced by stimuli that harm the organism. Pain perception has a protective effect on the organism.
Pain can be an external sensation or an internal sensation
Smell and taste
sense of smell
The feeling produced when gas molecules of certain substances act on the nasal mucosa
The human sense of smell is affected by many factors and provides important information for our survival.
Taste
The sensation produced by a soluble substance acting on the taste buds
The appropriate stimulus to cause taste is a substance that is soluble in water or liquid. The receptors that receive taste stimulation are taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, the back of the pharynx and the palate.
internal feeling
kinesthetic
The feeling that reflects the movement and position of various body parts is called kinesthetic sense
Receptors are located in the nerve endings of muscles, ligaments, joints, etc.
Kinesthetic sense is an important basis for voluntary movement. Kinesthetic sense often acts in conjunction with other senses.
sense of balance
The feeling caused by accelerating or decelerating linear motion or rotational motion
The receptors for balance sense are located in the vestibular organ of the inner ear, which includes the semicircular canals and the vestibule.
The sense of balance is related to vision and visceral sensation. With practice, the sensitivity of the vestibular organ can be changed.
visceral sense
Also called somatosensory, the feeling produced when the internal organs of the body are stimulated
The appropriate stimulation to cause visceral sensation is the activities and changes of the internal organs of the body. The characteristics of visceral sensation are imprecision and poor resolution.
Section 3 Interaction of Feelings
interaction of the same feeling
Feeling adapted
The phenomenon of changes in susceptibility due to the continued effect of stimulation on receptors
Visual adaptation can be divided into dark adaptation and light adaptation; auditory adaptation is not very obvious; touch pressure and temperature adaptation are obvious; pain adaptation is difficult to occur; taste adaptation is relatively common.
Feeling contrast
Sensory contrast refers to the phenomenon that the same receptor receives different stimuli and causes changes in sensitivity.
Divided into simultaneous comparison and sequential comparison. Simultaneous contrast refers to the phenomenon that several stimuli act on the same receptor at the same time, causing the susceptibility to change; sequential contrast refers to the phenomenon that stimuli act on the same receptor one after another, causing the susceptibility to change.
interaction of different senses
The interaction of different senses
The law is not yet clear, but the general trend is that weak stimulation of one receptor can increase the sensitivity of other receptors, while strong stimulation can decrease the sensitivity of other receptors.
Compensation of different feelings
Sensory compensation refers to the loss of function of a certain sensory system, which is compensated by the functions of other sensory systems.
The reason why various sensations can compensate each other is that the energy of various stimuli can be converted
synesthesia
When one sensory organ is stimulated, the sensations and representations of another sensory organ appear, which is called synesthesia
Color-auditory synesthesia, color-taste synesthesia, color-temperature synesthesia
Chapter 5 Perception
Section 1 Overview of Perception
concept of perception
Perception is the overall understanding of things produced in the mind by the direct effect of objective things on the senses.
The relationship between perception and feeling
The difference between feeling and perception
Feeling and perception are different psychological processes. Feeling reflects individual attributes, and perception reflects the whole thing.
From the perspective of physiological mechanism, feeling is the result of the activity of a single analyzer, and perception is the result of the coordinated activity of multiple analyzers to analyze and synthesize complex stimuli or the relationships between stimuli.
Perception is not a simple sum of sensations, it is more complex than sensation
The connection between perception and feeling
They are all reflections of things that directly act on our sensory organs. If things no longer directly act on our sensory organs, then our feeling and perception of things will also stop.
Feeling and perception are both primary forms of human understanding of the world, reflecting the external characteristics and external connections of things.
Perception is generated on the basis of feeling and occurs simultaneously with feeling. Without feeling, there would be no perception.
Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information. Firstly, perception must organize sensory information; secondly, perception must also interpret sensory information.
Perceptual Processing Forms
Stimulus-driven processing (top-down processing, data-driven processing)
Stimulus-driven processing means that the generation of perception is based on a large amount of sensory information and is directly caused by stimuli.
Concept-driven processing (top-down processing)
Concept-driven processing refers to the experience, expectation, and motivation of the perceiver, which guides the perceiver's information selection, integration, and representation during the perception process, and affects the process and results of perception to a certain extent.
Perception is an active process. The impression of perception does not always objectively reflect the thing itself, but is often subjective.
physiological mechanism of perception
While detecting features, the human nervous system is also integrating stimuli at different levels and completing the process of perception.
Section 2 Types of Perception
spatial perception
The concept of spatial perception
Spatial perception is people’s understanding of spatial characteristics such as the shape, size, distance and orientation of objects; spatial perception is the result of the coordinated activities of multiple analyzers
manifestations of spatial perception
Shape perception refers to the overall perception of the outline and boundary of an object. Generally, shape perception is the result of the coordinated activities of vision, touch and kinesthetics.
Size perception is the brain's reflection of the quantitative changes in the length, volume, and area of an object. It is completed with the participation of vision, touch and pressure sense and kinesthetic sense.
Depth perception, also known as distance perception and three-dimensional perception, is the human's perception of the concavity and convexity of objects, as well as the distance and distance. Depth perception depends on relevant cues. Generally speaking, such cues include monocular cues and binocular cues.
Orientation perception refers to the perception of the spatial relationship and position of objects and the spatial position of the organism itself. Orientation is the result of the coordinated activities of various senses
time perception
concept
Time perception is people's perception of the continuity and sequence of objective things. Time perception has special characteristics. First, it is not caused by fixed stimuli. Second, there are no specialized sensory organs for time perception.
forms of time perception
Four forms: confirmation of time, discrimination of time, estimation of duration, prediction of time
frame of reference for time perception
Periodic phenomena in nature, timing tools, physiological rhythmic information
Factors affecting time perception
The nature of sensory channels, the quantity and nature of time occurrences within a certain period of time, human interests and emotions
motion perception
concept
Motion perception is people's perception of changes in objects and the speed of change
Types of motion perception
Kinesthetic perception: the perception of the object’s true spatial displacement and moving speed
Kinesthetic perception: refers to the phenomenon of perceiving stationary objects as moving, or perceiving objects without continuous displacement as continuous motion under certain conditions. Mainly include dynamic movement, autonomous movement, induced movement, and movement aftereffects.
illusion
concept
An illusion is a distorted perception of something under certain conditions
Types of Illusions
Geometric illusions (Müller-Leye illusion, also called arrow illusion; vertical-horizontal illusion; Jastrow illusion; Boggendorff illusion; Wundt illusion; Zoellner illusion; Oberson illusion; Einstein illusion ;Panzo illusion.
The illusion of weight, a pound of iron and a pound of cotton, the illusion that the visual shape affects the weight of the muscles
Illusion of orientation: errors in judgment of direction
Motion illusion, time illusion, etc.
illusion theory
Eye movement theory: It is believed that when we perceive geometric figures, our eyes always scan and move regularly along the contours or lines of the figure. Facts prove that the theory cannot be established
Neural inhibition theory: It is believed that when two contours are close to each other, the lateral inhibition process in the retina changes the activity of cells stimulated by the contours. Unexplainable Boggendorff illusion graphics
Section 3 Characteristics of Perception
Perceptual selectivity
concept
Perceptual selectivity means that when people perceive, they always regard a few things as the objects of perception and other things as the background of perception, so that they can perceive certain things more clearly.
The relationship between the perceptual object and the background
The object of perception and the background transform into each other and are interdependent.
the wholeness of perception
concept
Perceptual integrity refers to the integration of multiple attributes and different parts of the perceptual object into a whole
Organizing Principles of Holistic Perception
Principle of proximity, principle of similarity, principle of continuity, principle of closure, principle of homology
The relationship between global perception and partial perception
Whole perception cannot be separated from partial perception
Partial perception depends on the overall perception of things
Whole perception may sometimes take precedence over partial perception
perceptual intelligibility
concept
Comprehensibility of perception refers to explaining the object of perception based on one's past experience, naming or classifying it with words or concepts, and giving the object a certain meaning.
Main factors affecting perceptual comprehensibility
Knowledge experience, verbal guidance,
perceptual constancy
concept
Perceptual constancy means that when the objective conditions of perception change within a certain range, the perceptual image does not change accordingly and remains stable.
Types of perceptual constancy
Size constancy (previous experience, observer's observation posture, reference objects in the surrounding environment), shape constancy, lightness constancy (brightness constancy), color constancy
Chapter 6 Memory
Section 1 Memory Overview
concept of memory
Memory is the psychological process by which an individual remembers, retains, recalls or recognizes his or her experiences.
Recognition, retention and reproduction are the three basic processes of memory
Memory is one of the forms of preserving individual experience
The role of memory
Memory is closely related to other psychological activities, and learning activities are inseparable from memory.
Memory also plays an important role in individual development. For people to develop motor skills, language and thinking, memory is the prerequisite.
Neurophysiological mechanisms of memory
Brain structure mechanism of memory
Brain localization theory, integration theory, SPI theory
Brain cell mechanism of memory
Reflect circuit and synaptic structure
The biochemical mechanism of memory
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), hormones
Section 2 Types of Memory
Implicit and explicit memory
Implicit memory refers to the unconscious influence that an individual's experience automatically has on the current task without conscious awareness. sometimes called automatic unconscious memory
Explicit memory refers to the conscious impact of past experience on current tasks under the control of consciousness. The behavior is something that the individual can be aware of. It is also called memory controlled by consciousness.
Different: the depth of processing has different effects on implicit memory and explicit memory; the retention time is different, and implicit memory fades much slower with time than explicit memory; changes in memory load have different effects on implicit memory and explicit memory. The impact on memory is different; changes in presentation methods have different impacts on implicit memory and explicit memory; interfering factors have different impacts on explicit memory and implicit memory (implicit memory is less susceptible to interference)
Episodic memory and semantic memory
Episodic memory is people’s memory of an event based on time and space relationships. Limited by events and space, information storage is susceptible to interference and is not stable and certain enough.
Semantic memory is people's memory of general knowledge and rules. It is restricted by general rules, knowledge, concepts and words, and is rarely disturbed by external factors, so it is relatively stable.
declarative memory and procedural memory
Declarative memory refers to the memory of relevant facts and events, which has the characteristics of being transmissible.
Procedural memory is the memory of sequential activities. It is learned according to a certain procedure. It is difficult at first and difficult to forget after mastering it.
Image memory, motor memory, emotional memory and logical memory
Image memory is a memory whose content is the image of something that has been perceived. This kind of memory that maintains the specific image of things has a distinct intuition and is stored in the form of representation.
Section 3 Memory System
sensory memory
Sensory memory is a momentary image maintained after sensory stimulation stops. It is also called instant memory and sensory registration. It is the first stage of human memory information processing.
Coding of sensory memory: image coding, audio-visual coding
The storage characteristics of sensory memory: the amount of information stored in sensory memory is large; the information stored in sensory memory is stored for a short time
Conversion of sensory memory: Information that has not received attention is not converted into short-term memory and disappears quickly; only information that attracts individual attention and is recognized in time can enter short-term memory.
short term memory
Short-term memory refers to memory in which information is generally stored in the mind for no more than one minute. It is the intermediate link from sensory memory to long-term memory. Short-term memory generally includes direct memory and working memory
Encoding of short-term memory: visual encoding, auditory encoding
The storage characteristics of short-term memory: the retention time of information in short-term memory is short, and the capacity of short-term memory is limited.
Forgetting of short-term memory: Information in short-term memory will be quickly forgotten if it is not repeated.
Information retrieval from short-term memory: performed in a complete series of scans (Sternberg experiment)
Conversion of short-term memory: After the content of short-term memory is repeated, it enters long-term memory. One type of retelling is mechanical retelling or maintenance retelling, and the other is detailed retelling. Research shows that sophisticated retelling is more effective than mechanical retelling.
long term memory
The concept of long-term memory
It refers to the memory that the information has been fully processed and maintained in the mind for a long time. Information in long-term memory is an organized knowledge system
Encoding in long-term memory
Acquisition of long-term memory: Memorization is the main way to memorize acquired information for a long time. According to different standards, it can be divided into: unconscious memory and conscious memory, mechanical memory and meaningful memory.
The organization and processing of memorization materials: the organization and processing of representation and semantics; encoding with the characteristics of language as an intermediary; the organization and processing of semantic classification; subjective organization.
long term memory storage
Features: Long-term memory storage capacity is huge, information can be retained for a long time, and information storage can change dynamically.
Information retrieval from long-term memory
Forms of information retrieval from long-term memory: recognition; recall;
The theory of long-term memory information retrieval: one believes that information retrieval is to search for memory traces based on the meaning, system, etc. of the information, so that the traces can be activated and relevant items can be recalled; the other believes that memory is an active process, storing What comes together are some elements or components, while recall is the collection of past cognitive components into a complete thing
Factors affecting long-term memory retrieval: positive factors (reasonable organization of information is conducive to retrieval, storing information in the context of encoding is conducive to retrieval), negative factors (interference affects the retrieval of information, negative emotions hinder information extraction)
Forgetting in long-term memory
The concept of forgetting: refers to the inability to recognize and recall the contents of a demerit, or to recognize and recall it incorrectly
Types of forgetting: according to degree and nature: partial forgetting, complete forgetting; differences in forgetting time: temporary forgetting and permanent forgetting
The law of forgetting: German psychologist Ebbinghaus used the re-learning method to check the memorization effect and formed the classic forgetting curve. The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve reveals that the law of forgetting is fast and then slow.
Factors affecting forgetting: nature and quantity of memorization materials; degree of learning; sequence position of memorization materials; attitude of memorizers
Causes of forgetting: Decline theory, interference theory, retrieval failure theory, repression theory
Overcoming forgetfulness: review in time, allocate review time reasonably, diversify review, and combine reading with recall
Chapter 7 Thinking
Section 1 Overview of Thinking
what is thinking
Thinking is the human brain’s indirect and general response to the essential attributes and internal regularities of objective things.
It has two characteristics: indirectness and generality, which are interconnected and influence each other.
The relationship between thinking and perception: Thinking is the reflection of the common essential attributes of objective things, the internal regularities of things and their inevitable connections; thinking is rational understanding and the deepening and leap of perception.
types of thinking
Action thinking, image thinking and abstract thinking
Action thinking: Operational thinking and specific action thinking are thinking with actual action as the pillar and are the initial form of thinking development.
Image thinking: Concrete image thinking is thinking based on the specific image and appearance of things.
Abstract thinking: Logical thinking is a form of thinking unique to humans. It is a thinking activity in the form of concepts, judgments and reasoning.
Convergent thinking and divergent thinking
Convergent thinking: consensus thinking, concentrated thinking, convergent thinking, refers to thinking that aggregates various information provided by a problem to arrive at a correct answer or best solution in the same direction.
Divergent thinking: Divergent thinking, dispersed thinking, radiating thinking, refers to thinking that starts from one goal, thinks along various ways, and explores multiple answers.
Empirical thinking and theoretical thinking
Empirical thinking: thinking activities based on Nissan concepts
Theoretical thinking: the thinking process of judgment, reasoning and problem solving based on scientific concepts and theories
Intuitive thinking and analytical thinking
Intuitive thinking: Also known as intuition, it is a kind of non-logical thinking, which refers to thinking activities that directly and quickly understand things without going through the logical process of complicated and dedicated operations. Perceptual thinking is, to a certain extent, the condensation and abbreviation of logical thinking
Analytical thinking: Logical thinking, strictly following the laws of logic, through a series of analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, concreteness and systematic thinking processes.
Conventional thinking and creative thinking
Conventional thinking: Reconstructive thinking refers to the way of thinking in which people use acquired knowledge and experience, follow ready-made plans and procedures, and use habitual methods and fixed patterns to solve problems.
Creative thinking: refers to the thinking process of solving problems in novel and original ways
forward thinking and reverse thinking
Positive thinking: a way of thinking in accordance with people’s traditional, logical or habitual direction
Reverse thinking: refers to a way of thinking that is opposite to the general traditional, logical and habitual thinking direction. It requires people to observe and think from two opposite directions when performing thinking activities, so as to solve problems creatively.
vertical thinking and lateral thinking
Vertical thinking: refers to thinking that is carried out in an orderly, predictable, and stylized manner within a certain structural scope, and is carried out in the direction from low to high, from shallow to deep, and from beginning to end, thus conforming to the general nature of things. The direction of development and the general laws of human understanding have become the habitual way of thinking in people's daily lives.
Lateral thinking: refers to a way of thinking that breaks through the structural scope of a problem and is inspired by things and facts in its field to generate new ideas.
Section 2 The process of thinking
Analysis and synthesis
Analysis and synthesis are the basic links in the thinking process. All thinking activities, from simple to complex, from concept formation to creative thinking, are inseparable from the analysis and synthesis of the mind.
Analysis is the mental process of breaking down a whole thing into its parts, aspects, or individual characteristics.
Synthesis is a thinking process that combines various parts, aspects, and characteristics of things in the mind to consider them.
Compare and classify
Comparison is the thinking process of comparing various things or phenomena in the mind and determining the similarities and differences between them.
Classification is the thinking process of dividing things or phenomena into different types in the mind based on their commonalities and differences.
abstraction and generalization
Abstraction is the thinking process of extracting the common and essential characteristics of similar things or phenomena in the mind and discarding the individual and non-essential characteristics.
Generalization is a thinking process that combines the common and essential characteristics of abstract things in the mind and extends them to similar things to make them universal.
concreteness and systematization
Concretization refers to the thinking process of connecting abstract and summarized general concepts and theories with specific things in the mind, that is, the process of using general principles to solve practical problems and using theory to guide practical activities.
Systematization refers to the process of classifying the learned knowledge into a hierarchical overall system in the mind according to certain procedures.
Section 3 Problem Solving
Concepts of problem solving and types of problems
Problem solving refers to the process of solving a problem caused by a certain situation, according to a certain goal, applying a certain strategy, and through a series of human operations. It has three basic characteristics: purpose, operation sequence, and cognitive operation.
Type of question
Well-defined problems and vaguely-defined problems
Adversarial and non-adversarial questions
Semantic-rich questions and meaning-poor questions
problem solving process
General problem solving model
problem found
analyse problem
propose a hypothesis
Test hypothesis
problem solving cycle
Go through the following steps: determine the problem, define the problem, formulate a strategy, organize information, allocate resources, monitor, and evaluate
problem solving strategies
Algorithmic: It is a strategy to solve problems according to logic.
Heuristic: A method that uses less search in the problem space to solve the problem based on past experience in solving problems; there are means-goal analysis method and reverse reasoning method.
Factors affecting problem solving
Knowledge experience, problem solving strategies
Problem representation method: It is the way to record, understand and express information about the problem in the mind.
Set-up: a state of readiness for an activity caused by repetition of previous mental operations
Functional fixation: The tendency of people to assign a certain function to something is called functional fixation
Motivation and emotion: Moderate motivation and emotional intensity are most conducive to problem solving
Personality characteristics: People's personality characteristics have a direct impact on problem solving
interpersonal relationships
Section 4 Creative Thinking
Creative thinking concept
Creative thinking refers to the thinking process of solving problems in novel and unique ways. It is an advanced process of human thinking and a symbol of the development level of human consciousness.
Characteristics of creative thinking
originality or novelty
flexibility
Artistry and non-simulation
object potential
risk
The role of creative thinking
Creative thinking can continuously increase the total amount of human knowledge and continuously advance the level of human understanding of the world.
Creative thinking can continuously improve human cognitive abilities
Creative thinking can open up new horizons for practice
Creative thinking will be the main activity method and content of human beings in the future
creative thinking methods
Brainstorming method: basic principles (delay judgment, quantity breeds quality), meeting rules (forbid criticism, speak freely, pursue comprehensive improvement, do not allow private conversations and speaking on behalf of others), improvement forms (brainstorming cycle, reverse brainstorming, imagination Construction Law, Loophole Finding Law)
Hope point enumeration method: Conduct a survey of the target consumer groups or collect their expectations for the product through brainstorming meetings, conduct a list analysis of the survey results, find the functions and features where the hope points are concentrated, and try as much as possible in the development of new products Satisfy these expectations of consumers.
Disadvantage enumeration method: Investigate the exact shortcomings of similar products, conduct list analysis, and explore possibilities and methods for improvement.
Biomimetic method: a method based on bionics to capture thinking inspiration from the biological world
Osborne's Check Questioning Method: A creative method that lists many relevant questions in product design, and then answers and analyzes these questions to obtain creative ideas.
creative thinking stage
Preparation Phase
The first stage mainly collects and organizes information, stores necessary knowledge and experience, and prepares necessary technology, equipment and other relevant conditions.
gestation stage
Digest and absorb various materials and knowledge obtained in the previous stage to clarify the problem and propose various hypotheses and solutions to solve the problem.
enlightenment stage
called the creative stage in a narrow sense or the real creative stage
Verification phase
Also called the performance stage, also called the implementation stage
Measurement and cultivation of creative thinking
Measurement of creative thinking
Scale method: University of Southern California Creativity Test (Gilford Creativity Test), Torrance Creative Thinking Test, University of Chicago Creativity Test (Gatsels-Jackson Creativity Test), Wallich-Cogan Juvenile Test Children's Creativity Test, Adjective Checklist
Questionnaire method: Talent Discovery Group Questionnaire, Interest Group Exploration Questionnaire
Cultivation of creative thinking
Stimulate creative interest and cultivate creative desire
Overcome mind-sets and meaning barriers
Develop the habit of active thinking
Master the ways and means of creative thinking
Change traditional evaluation methods and form a good social atmosphere
Chapter 8 Language
Section 1 Language Overview
language concept
Language is a social phenomenon. It is a symbol system formed by humans through highly structured sound combinations, or written symbols, gestures, etc. It is also an act of using this symbol system to communicate ideas.
Characteristics of language
Communicability is the most salient feature
Natural language has two necessary characteristics: regularity and creativity.
Characterized by arbitrariness, discontinuity and dynamics
structure of language
phoneme
It is the smallest sound unit that determines meaningful differences in language and is the most basic unit of speech.
morpheme
The next level of language structure is morphemes, which are meaningful linguistic units composed of sounds in language and are the smallest meaning units in language.
word
Language needs to be able to provide symbols that represent things and ideas, which are words, which are composed of phonemes and morphemes.
syntax
Syntax refers to the arrangement of words in a sentence. Broadly speaking, syntax refers to the structure of a sentence, that is, the parts of a sentence and the way those parts fit together.
Section 2 Language Production
unit of language production
Sentence is a very important unit of language generation
stages of language production
Franconian seven-stage model
Anderson's three-stage model: construction phase, transformation phase, execution phase
Der's activation diffusion model, four stages or levels
The three stages proposed by Lewe: conceptualization stage, formulation stage (syntax stage, second stage to determine the phonetics of vocabulary)
Section 3 Language Acquisition
stages of language acquisition
Coo: made up of vowels
babbling: composed of consonants and vowels
Single-word expressions: These expressions are limited by the vowels and consonants they use
Two-letter expressions and telegraphic speech: Two-letter and three-letter words, 1 to 2 1/2 years old
Basic adult sentence structure: demonstrated around age 4
reinforcement theory of language acquisition
imitate
demonstration
conditioning
The innate role of language acquisition
The interaction between nature and environment
Section 4 Understanding of Language
speech perception
The first aspect of the complexity of speech perception lies in language decomposition, and the second aspect lies in invariance
Eye movement
The reading process, starting from the moment when the eyes annotate the text material, to interpreting the meaning of the material, and then to another scan, occurs in a very short time. Eyes move in a hopping motion
The Eye Movement-Mind Hypothesis founded by Zast and Carpenter
word recognition
McClelland and Rummelhardt proposed the reciprocal activation model
Sentence understanding
Extract the meaning of words and understand the syntactic structure
infer
The process of making inferences, that is, filling in gaps in spoken and written language.
Harry proposed three types of inference: logical inference, connection inference, and refined inference.
understanding of paragraphs
Havilland and Clark describe a strategy of becoming known-newly known, stating that the listener or reader processes a sentence by dividing it into known parts and new-known parts.
The understanding of a paragraph is affected by many factors: 1. The importance of different information in the paragraph; 2. The context provided by the context is also a factor that affects the understanding of the paragraph; 3. The more knowledge a reader has, the better his understanding of the text will be. The better; 4. Text understanding is also affected by environmental information and instructions.
Chapter 9 Representation and Imagination
Section 1 Appearance
concept of representation
A representation is an image in the mind of something that has been perceived
Imagery is different from sensory afterimages and sensory perceptions. It is the image of things that appears in the mind through indirect means when the things are no longer in front of them. It lasts for a long time and plays an important role in people's cognitive activities. It is indirect and figurative
types of representation
Perceptual representation, memory representation and imaginative representation
Single representation and composite representation
general appearance and individual appearance
Relict phenomenon
representational characteristics
intuitiveness
generalization
Operability
Neurophysiological mechanisms of representation
Roland and Friberg measured and found that when subjects completed visual tasks, the blood flow in the back area was the most obvious. This area includes the occipital lobe and temporal lobe, both of which are very important for advanced visual processing and memory, suggesting the brain areas involved in representation. In addition to the visual area, there is also a memory processing area
Goldenberg and Koslin used PET research to show that representational tasks activate more brain areas than perceptual tasks, and the processing of representational tasks requires more energy than perceptual tasks.
The role of representation in mental activities
Representation is a form of people's accumulation of perceptual experience
Representation is the premise and basis of thinking and imagining activities
Section 2 Imagination
imagination definition
Imagination is the process of thinking and processing existing images in the mind to form new images. It is an advanced cognitive activity (a special form of thinking).
physiological mechanism of imagination
Cerebral Cortex and Imagination
Hypothalamic-limbic system and imagination
Imagination and collective activities
imaginary synthesis process
Gluing: Combining different features or parts of two or more things that have not been combined in reality to create a new image of the thing in the mind
Typification: concentrating the most typical and representative characteristics of something on the image of something
Personification: The process of adding human characteristics and characteristics to external things to make them personified is called personification.
Exaggeration and emphasis: Exaggeration is to change the normal characteristics of objective things and exaggerate or reduce certain characteristics. Emphasis is to highlight and highlight a certain property of an objective thing or its relationship with other things.
imagined function
Anticipatory function
Supplementary functions
compensatory function
types of imagination
Unintentional imagination: imagination carried out unconsciously without specific purpose and without any effort of will.
Intentional imagination: refers to imagination that has a predetermined purpose and requires a certain amount of will effort.
Reconstruction of imagination: refers to the process of generating new images in the mind based on verbal descriptions or recording of patterns and symbols. The conditions for creation are: 1. Must have rich representational reserves; 2. The words and physical signs provided for reimagining must be accurate, clear, and vivid; 3. Correctly understand the meaning of words and physical signs
Creative imagination: refers to the process of creating new images independently according to a certain purpose and task, without relying on ready-made descriptions. Conditions for production: 1. Creative motivation; 2. Rich reserve of representations; 3. Accumulation of necessary knowledge and experience; 4. Prototype inspiration; 5. Positive thinking activities; 6. Capturing inspiration.
Fantasy: refers to the imagination that is connected with personal life wishes and points to the future. What it creates is the image of future things that people expect. Characteristics: It embodies personal wishes and is an image of yearning; it is the preparatory stage for innovative activities; according to the possibility of realizing the value of fantasy, it can be divided into: positive fantasy and negative fantasy
Imagination and various creative activities
Imagination and technological invention
Imagination and scientific creation
Imagination and literary creation
imagined individual differences
The difference in visual clarity
Imagine the difference in creativity levels
dreams and imagination
The concept of dream: It is an extreme form of unintentional imagination. It is a kind of aimless and involuntary strange imagination that people have while sleeping.
Characteristics of dreams: bizarreness and verisimilitude
Sleep and Dreams: Sleep is a stage and phase of sleep.
The first stage is light sleep, which lasts only a few minutes and is the transition from wakefulness to deep sleep.
Stage 2 accounts for 45% of human sleep time
The third and fourth stages are called deep sleep
Heterophase sleep, also known as fast phase sleep and fast wave sleep, abbreviated as REM
dream function
Psychoanalytic perspective: Freud believed that dreams are a manifestation of subconscious activity processes and a form of expression of wishes.
Physiological point of view: Dreams are subjective experiences of random neural activities in our brains. A certain amount of stimulation is necessary to maintain the normal function of the nervous system.
Cognitive perspective: Dreams have certain cognitive functions
Problem-solving theory: Dreams are a continuation of people’s thoughts, worries, needs and desires when they are awake. The metaphors and associations in dreams can help people deal with evolving personal problems. This is the saying that what you think about every day is what you dream about every night.
Chapter 10 Moods and Emotions
Section 1 Overview of emotions and emotions
Definition of emotions and emotions
Emotion is when someone is in a state of change, from one state to another, such as happiness to sadness. Chinese psychologists believe that emotion is a kind of inner feeling and attitude of human beings towards various cognitive objects. Most researchers examine and define it from three aspects: subjective experience, physiological arousal and external behavior.
Emotions and emotions are related to people's specific subjective wishes or needs, and were historically collectively referred to as emotions. Emotion is usually used to describe stable feelings with profound social significance. As an experience and feeling, emotion has greater social stability, profundity and durability.
Dimensions and polarity of emotion
The dimension of emotion refers to certain characteristics inherent in emotion, mainly referring to the dynamics, excitement, intensity and tension of emotion.
Dimensional theory of emotion: Wundt’s three-dimensional theory (pleasant-unpleasant, exciting-calm, tense-relaxed), Schloberg’s three-dimensional model (pleasant-unpleasant, attention-denial and activation level), Plachek’s three-dimensional ( Strength, similarity, polarity, and using an inverted cone to illustrate the relationship between the three dimensions)
Neurophysiological mechanisms of emotion
Brain central mechanism of emotion
Emotions and the hypothalamus
Emotion and network structure
Emotions and Limbic System
Emotion and cerebral cortex
Peripheral mechanisms of emotion
Emotion and autonomic nervous system
Emotional and secretory systems
Emotional and somatic nervous system
external expression of emotion
facial expression changes
Facial expressions express various emotional states through changes in eye muscles, facial muscles and mouth muscles.
Posture and expression
Postures and expressions mainly rely on body postures and movements to amplify emotions. The head, hands and feet are the main body parts for expressing emotions.
verbal expressions
Verbal expression refers to expressing emotions through changes in language, intonation, speaking speed, rhythm, etc. in the process of using language.
Emotions and Emotional Functions
Adaptive function: Emotions and emotions are an important way for organisms to adapt to survival and development
Motivation function: Emotions are one of the sources of motivation and a basic part of the motivation system.
Organizational function: The organizational function of emotions and emotions. On the one hand, it is manifested in the regulating effect of positive emotions and the destructive and disintegrating effect of negative emotions. On the other hand, it is manifested in human behavior.
Signaling function: Emotions and emotions have the function of transmitting information and communicating ideas among people. This function is realized through the external expression of emotions, that is, expressions.
Emotional Maturity and Socialization
Emotional maturity is a socialization process. In the process of growth, individuals enable themselves to regulate and control their emotions in accordance with the requirements of society, and can make reasonable evaluations of their own activities, so as to express themselves proactively. Emotions, reaching this level is a sign of emotional maturity
emotional regulation
Emotional regulation refers to the process by which individuals manage and change their own or other people's emotions.
Emotional regulation
physiological regulation
Regulation of emotional experience
behavioral regulation
cognitive regulation
interpersonal adjustment
frustration
Frustration refers to the obstacles that interfere with goal activities in the process of achieving social goals and personal ambitions.
causes of frustration
Natural causes: natural environment or physical obstacles
Social reasons: social habits, traditions or human factors
Economic reasons: low income, personal needs are directly or indirectly hindered
After a setback, the self-psychological protection mechanism becomes a psychological defense mechanism, which mainly has three forms: positive, negative and compromised.
Section 2 Classification of emotions and emotions
Classification of emotions
The classification of emotions in ancient times includes the theory of six emotions and the theory of seven emotions. Xunzi divides six emotions, and the Book of Rites divides them into seven emotions.
Lin Chuanding summarized ancient times and divided emotions into 18 categories; Huang Xiting classified emotions into 5 categories based on time sequence and stimulus attributes.
Teplov and Smirnov divided emotions into mood, passion and enthusiasm, and emotions into moral sense, rational sense and aesthetic sense.
Izzard divides emotions into basic emotions and compound emotions. Basic emotions are innately cultivated and can be learned without learning. They have independent external expressions, internal experiences, physiological and neurological mechanisms and different adaptive functions.
Schaeffer proposed that there are six basic categories of emotions, three of which are positive emotions (love, joy, and surprise), and the other three are negative emotions (anger, sadness, and fear).
Krejci divided emotions into primitive emotions, emotions related to sensory stimulation, emotions related to self-evaluation, and emotions related to others.
basic emotions
Happiness: refers to the emotional experience that occurs after a person achieves the goal he hopes for and pursues.
Anger: refers to the emotional experience that occurs when the goals pursued are hindered and the wishes cannot be realized.
Fear: the emotional experience that occurs when you are trying to get rid of or escape from a dangerous situation but are unable to cope with it.
Sadness: refers to the emotional experience that occurs when something you love is lost, or when your ideals and wishes are shattered.
compound emotions
Mood: a weak, calm, and persistent emotional state
Passion: an emotional state of intense intensity but short duration
Stress: an emotional state caused by unexpected stressful and crisis situations
Classification of emotions
Moral sense: the emotional experience of evaluating people’s thoughts, intentions, words and deeds according to certain moral standards
Sense of reason: It is the emotional experience that occurs when people evaluate the achievements of cognitive activities in intellectual activities.
Beauty: It is the emotional experience that people have when they evaluate natural or social phenomena and their artistic expression according to their own aesthetic standards.
Section 3 Emotion Theory
Biologically oriented theories of emotion
Darwin's Principle of Emotions
Useful Connectivity Habit Principles
Opposite principle
The principle of direct action of the nervous system
Recognition of emotional states
James-Lange theory
James believed that emotions are the perception of physical changes; Langer proposed that emotions are the result of visceral activities
It emphasizes that the generation of emotions is the product of autonomic nervous activity, so it is also called the peripheral theory of emotion.
Cannon-Bard Doctrine
Cannon and Bader believe that the center of emotion does not extend into the system from the periphery, but is located in the thalamus of the central nervous system.
The generation of emotions is the inhibitory function of the cerebral cortex and thalamus, that is, the stimuli that stimulate emotions are processed by the thalamus, and the information is transmitted to the brain and other parts of the body at the same time.
Physical changes and emotional experiences occur simultaneously, and emotional feelings are the result of a combination of the cerebral cortex and the autonomic nervous system.
habit theory
Research focuses on the information conveyed by expressive activities accompanying emotions
The innate expression of action emotional states comes from intentional activities. Intentional activities have adaptive value for cooperative behavior among individuals
Human beings' recognition of emotional manifestations begins at a very young age and has an innate genetic component.
Emotional Learning Theory
classical conditioning theory
It is believed that after the central stimulus that cannot produce an emotional response is repeatedly combined with the unconditioned stimulus that produces an emotion, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, causing an emotional response.
operant conditioning theory
The idea that the connection between response and outcome can both stimulate our behavior and alter our emotional experience
observational learning theory
Bandura pointed out that the formation of phobias sometimes does not originate from direct individual experience, but from the observation of fearful behaviors of role models after being hurt by a certain object.
cognitive theory of emotion
Assessment-Excited to say
Arnold believes that the stimulus situation does not directly determine the nature of the emotion. From the appearance of the stimulus to the generation of the emotion, the evaluation and evaluation of the stimulus are required. The basic process of emotion generation is stimulus situation-evaluation-emotion. Excitation of the cerebral cortex is the most important condition for emotional behavior
Lazarus expanded Arnold's evaluation into a process of evaluation and re-evaluation. He believed that the evaluation of the situation includes the evaluation of what Xiong Dong might do. There are three levels of evaluation: initial evaluation, secondary evaluation, and re-evaluation.
The emotion theory of Arnold and Lazarus combines the study of phenomena, cognitive theory and the study of emotional physiology. It not only recognizes the biological factors of emotions, but also recognizes that emotions are restricted by socio-cultural situations, individual experiences and personality characteristics. All of this happens with the recognition and evaluation of nothingness. This perspective is more comprehensive and has greater value.
Schachter and Singer's Theory of Emotions
It is believed that there are two essential factors for the generation of emotions: one is that the individual must experience a high degree of physiological arousal, and the other is that the individual must be cognitively aroused to changes in physiological state.
emotional arousal model
Emotion is the product of the interaction between cognitive factors and physiological arousal state
Three effects of cognition on emotions: 1. Evaluation and interpretation of emotional stimuli; 2. Cognitive analysis of causes of arousal; 3. Naming of emotions and re-evaluation of the named emotions
motivation-differentiation theory of emotion
Emotions have motivational properties. Izzard's emotional motivation-differentiation theory takes emotions as the core and personality as the basis to discuss the nature and function of emotions.
Emotions include three subsystems: neurophysiology, neuromuscular expression behavior, and emotional experience.
Izzard proposed a basic process: biogenetic-neuroendocrine activation process, sensory feedback activation process, emotional activation process and cognitive activation process.
Chapter 11 Will
Section 1 Overview of Will
concept of will
Will refers to the psychological process in which a person consciously determines his purpose, controls and regulates his actions according to the purpose, and overcomes various difficulties to achieve his purpose.
Willed action is possessed by human beings and is the most prominent manifestation of human subjective initiative.
manifestation of volitional action
Purpose and planning of human will actions
Initiative and creativity of human will action
The progress of human will action
Willed actions must conform to objective laws
will and freedom
Dialectical materialism believes that human beings are always free, but they are not free
Freedom of will is conditional and historical; will is restricted by social history in two main aspects: 1. The freedom of human will is restricted by social and historical conditions; 2. People’s evaluation of the quality of will is based on specific social conditions. Historical conditions are transferred.
physiological mechanism of will
Volitional activity is a function of the human brain and is the result of the integrated activities of multiple parts and levels of the nervous system.
Human volitional actions are realized by a series of voluntary movements. Voluntary movements are the result of the connection between motor sensory cells and motor cells.
Human voluntary movements are very complex and rely on the regulation of return afferents from effector organs.
The reticular structure also plays an important role in the volitional regulation of behavior.
In short, volitional action is the result of the interaction of many complex neural processes in the brain, among which the precentral motor area and the frontal lobe play a very important role.
The relationship between will and cognition, emotion, and personality
The relationship between will and cognition: 1. The generation of will is predicated on the cognitive process. Without the cognitive process, will cannot be generated. 2. Will also has a great influence on cognitive processes.
The relationship between will and emotion. 1. Emotions can be both the driving force and the resistance to volitional actions; 2. Will can control emotions, enable emotions to control emotions, and make emotions obey reason; 3. Cognitive processes, emotional emotional processes, and volitional processes are closely related
The relationship between will and personality: 1. Personality tendency restricts the expression of human will; 2. Will plays an important role in the formation and development of personality
Section 2 Volitional Action and its Psychological Process
Basic characteristics of volitional action
An act of will is an action with a purpose
Voluntary movement is the basis of volitional action
Willing action is linked to overcoming difficulties
The regulating effect of will on action
Will is a manifestation of the regulatory function of consciousness
The regulating effect of will on action is manifested in two aspects: initiating and inhibiting human behavior.
Will can regulate people’s external actions and mental state
psychological process of will
Adoption of the decision stage involves motivational struggles and determining the purpose of action. Motivational struggles are divided into 4 forms: approach-approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflict, approach-avoidance conflict, and multiple approach-avoidance conflict
The execution decision stage, including the selection of action methods, strategies and decisions made to achieve customer service difficulties
psychological components of volitional processes
Conflict and ambivalence: Actions of will are often accompanied by conflicts and ambivalence.
Goal: An internal mental representation of an individual that guides his or her behavior
diversity of goals
organization of goals
Goal motivation
Ambition level: refers to the level of achievement that an individual estimates he can achieve before doing a certain actual work. It is closely related to the determination and selection of a person's goals. Influenced by three factors: self-confidence, individual success and failure experience, and group success and failure experience
Self-confidence: Also known as self-confidence, it means that an individual trusts himself, has confidence in what he knows and can do, and has no doubts about his judgments and what he has done. In terms of performance: the role of self-confidence in determining the level of goals; self-confidence affects our emotional response to tasks and the amount of pressure we endure; self-confidence stimulates people's motivational thinking; self-confidence affects the persistence and persistence of volitional actions. Tolerance to stress; self-confidence also affects reaction to achieving goals
decision making
Steps: 1. Realize the necessity of decision-making; 2. Determine goals and define problems; 3. Formulate alternatives for decision-making; 3. Conduct dimensional analysis of each option; 4. Evaluate each alternative; 5. Make a decision
Section 3 Will Quality and Cultivation
quality of will
Consciousness refers to the quality of a person's will that has a clear purpose in action, is able to understand the social significance of action, and makes his actions subject to the requirements of society.
Decisiveness refers to a quality of will that is good at distinguishing right from wrong, seizing opportunities, taking decisions quickly and reasonably, and realizing the decisions made.
Tenacity refers to the persistence of the purpose of action and the quality of will to maintain abundant energy and perseverance in action.
Self-control refers to the quality of being able to consciously and flexibly control one's emotions and restrain one's movements and speech during volitional actions.
Cultivation of will and quality
Strengthen purposeful education and focus on cultivating moral emotions
Organize practical activities to gain direct experience in will training
Self-training to strengthen will
Give full play to the role of discipline in cultivating will and quality
Section 4 Will Control and Loss of Control
Will control
Will control is the process by which individuals manipulate the course and results of events to make them consistent with desired goals.
The control function of the will is achieved through the stimulation and restraint of actions. Motivation is expressed as pushing people to take active actions to achieve goals. Restraint means stopping actions that conflict with the intended purpose.
People encounter many internal and external obstacles in the process of achieving their goals, and will control must eliminate these obstacles.
out of control
When people encounter a threatening situation and are unable to cope with it, they feel that they have lost control of the event.
There are some reactions when you lose control
Information Seeking: Desire for more information after loss of control in order to form a verified understanding of the predicament.
Intensified reaction to difficulties: Failure to anticipate difficulties after losing control will have a greater negative impact
Struggle and depression
Emotions and behaviors caused by resistance: 1. Produce anger, hostility and aggression; 2. Try to regain the lost control; 3. Change the understanding of the results; 4. Produce a symbolic restoration of freedom of choice.
Depression: It can lead to giving up your due efforts on other things, and even making wrong judgments, misjudging controllable events as uncontrollable. Depression can also cause long-term anxiety and depression
Factors that create resistance and depression
People with a strong external locus of control are more likely to be depressed, while people with a strong internal locus of control are more likely to be resistant.
People who have experienced losing control many times are more likely to be depressed, while people who have had less experience losing control in the past are more likely to develop resistance.
Generally, it is easy to fight immediately after losing control, and it is easy to become depressed after the efforts to regain control during the fight fail.
People who have been accustomed to being in control for a long time are prone to struggle, while people who have little control experience are prone to giving up when encountering difficulties that cannot be changed.
Chapter 12 Psychological Tendencies
Section 1 Interest
concept of interest
Interest is an individual’s psychological tendency to learn about something or engage in an activity
Genetic factors and environmental factors both affect interest
role of interest
Interest is a huge motivation for understanding things and engaging in activities. It is a psychological factor that promotes people to seek knowledge and engage in activities. Interest plays a driving role in people's learning, work and all activities.
Interest is an important factor in attracting and maintaining attention. People always happily and proactively explore things they are interested in. Interest is a powerful motivation for people to engage in activities.
Classification of interests
Material interests (the pursuit of food, clothing, comfortable living environment and living conditions, etc.) and spiritual interests (interests in knowledge)
Direct interest (the activity process itself) and indirect interest (activity results)
The quality of interest (characteristics of interest)
Interest tendency: refers to what an individual is interested in
Broadness of interests: the scope of an individual’s interests
Persistence of interest: Stability of interest refers to the degree to which an individual's interest is stable
Efficacy of interest: refers to the power of individual interests to promote activities
Section 2 Need
concept of need
A need is a certain lack or imbalance within an organism. It reflects the dependence of the survival and development of organisms on objective conditions and is the source of enthusiasm for organism activities.
Needs are the source of enthusiasm for organic activities and the basic motivation for people to carry out activities.
Type of need
Physiological needs (some needs to preserve and maintain the life of organisms and continue the race) and social needs (needs formed by human beings in social life to maintain the existence and development of society)
Material needs (needs targeting material products) and spiritual needs (needs targeting spiritual and cultural products)
theory needed
Lewin's need theory: It is assumed that there is a certain balance between the individual and the environment. If this balance is destroyed, it will cause a kind of tension (needs and motivations), and this tension will lead to efforts to restore the balance. Effort (it's called movement). Lewin divided needs into: needs and quasi-needs
Murray's need theory: regards needs as the central concept of the individual and is used to explain the dynamic structure of personality. It is believed that needs are the source of motivation for individual behavior and are necessary for individual behavior. Various human needs interact with each other, and all human needs are a system. Murray divided needs into basic needs and secondary needs
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory: It believes that humans have five basic needs: physiological needs, safety needs, belonging and love needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs.
Aldev’s need theory: There are three types of human needs: survival needs (the most basic needs), relationship needs (relationship needs), and growth needs (people’s inner desire for development).
McClelland's need theory: After human physiological needs are met, the basic needs are: achievement needs, power needs and gregarious needs. The order and importance of the three needs vary from person to person.
Rubinstein and Petrovsky's need theory: human needs are the source of positive personality, which contains two meanings: needs themselves are dynamic, and needs are the basic motivation for activities.
Section 3 Motivation
concept of motivation
Motivation refers to the internal process that initiates, directs, and sustains physical and psychological activities
Engine conditions
Need: The internal condition of the engine is need
Inducement: In addition to satisfying needs, a target object also has some kind of temptation. This power is called an inducement.
motivation function
Motivation function: Motivation can stimulate the body to produce certain activities
Guidance function: Motivation guides the direction of activities like a compass, making activities have a certain direction and moving towards the predetermined goal.
Maintenance and regulation function: When an activity occurs, motivation maintains the activity toward a certain goal and regulates the intensity and duration of the activity.
Work efficiency and motivation intensity
Among tasks that are relatively easy, work efficiency tends to increase as motivation increases.
In more difficult topics, the optimal level of motivation tends to gradually decrease as the difficulty of the topic increases.
Types of motivation
physiological motivation and social motivation
Physiological motivation originates from physiological needs and is based on the physiological needs of the organism. The most studied are hunger motivation and thirst motivation.
Social motivation, also called psychological motivation, originates from social needs and is connected with people's social needs. Social motivation has persistent characteristics and is acquired. Psychological motivation includes two levels. One level includes the more primitive three drives, namely curiosity, exploration and manipulation; the other level includes the achievement motivation and communication motivation unique to humans.
Long-term, general motivations and temporary, specific motivations
According to the scope and duration of influence, motivations can be divided into long-term, general and temporary, specific motivations. The former comes from a deep understanding of the meaning of the activity, lasts for a long time, is relatively stable, and has a wide range of influence; the latter is often caused by the interest in the activity itself, lasts for a short time, is often affected by personal emotions, and is not stable enough.
Noble motives and lower motives
According to the nature and social value of motivation, it can be divided as follows: Noble motivation can permanently mobilize people's enthusiasm and encourage them to make significant contributions to social development; low-level motivation goes against the laws of social development and human interests and is not conducive to social development.
Dominant and auxiliary motives
Divide according to the effect of motivation on activities. The dominant motive usually plays a decisive role in the activity, while the auxiliary motivation plays the role of strengthening the dominant motive and adhering to the direction guided by the dominant motive.
Conscious and subconscious motivations
Based on the consciousness of the action. There are some motives that we are not aware of, but they can affect people's activities. Settling is such a subconscious motive. In the human motivation system, conscious motivation plays a leading role
motivation theory
traditional motivation theory
Psychoanalytic motivation theory: the belief that human beings' most basic motivations are subconscious
Drive reduction theory: Hull proposed that the needs of the organism generate drive, which stimulates the behavior of the organism.
cognitive theory of motivation
Expectancy theory: Fromm established his own expectancy theory of motivation: it is believed that the strength of motivation depends on the product of target value (valency) and expected probability (expected value)
Motivational self-attribution theory: Aitkenson believes that individuals will have the same mentality of hope for success and fear of failure when faced with expected microblog situations. This mentality may constitute an individual's desire to pursue success and avoid failure when encountering problems. character
Motivation self-efficacy wheel: Bandura: When an individual faces a special task in goal pursuit, the strength of his or her motivation for that special task will be determined by the individual's assessment of his or her self-efficacy.
The theory of motivation: the theory of moderate excitement (the individual has an inherent tendency to automatically maintain moderate excitement in both physical and mental aspects, and if it is lacking, it will seek to increase it; if it is excessive, it will seek to decrease it), intrinsic motivation theory (some of the individual's behavioral activities themselves bring about The individual's feeling of happiness is what motivates this kind of behavior
Psychological tendency is the basic motivation for human activities and the most active factor in the personality structure
Chapter 13 Temperament
Section 1 Temperament Overview
temperament definition
Temperament is the dynamic characteristic of personal psychological activities
A person's temperament has great stability
Temperament explains the dynamic characteristics of a person's psychological activities, but cannot explain the person's beliefs, opinions, and interests. Does not play a decisive role in social time activities
Temperament can influence how activities are performed and how efficiently they are performed
Characteristics of Temperament
Dynamic: Temperament mainly reflects the dynamic characteristics of psychological activities in terms of speed, intensity, stability and directionality.
Typicality: Temperament gives a unique color to all mental activities of a person, showing typical characteristics that are different from others
Stability: Temperament depends on biological tissue for its existence and is stable, so generally it will not change due to changes in the activity situation.
Innateness: temperament is innate
Section 2 Temperament Theory
The theory of temperament in the Emperor's Internal Classic: According to the ratio of yin and yang in the human body, people are divided into Taiyin people, Shaoyin people, Sun people, Shaoyang people, and Yin and Yang people.
Humor theory: Hippocrates proposed that differences in temperament are determined by different fluids in the human body. In addition to provincial and psychological characteristics, Galen also added people's moral character to form 13 temperament types. Later, it was simplified into four temperament types, namely sanguineous temperament, choleric temperament, phlegmatic temperament and melancholic temperament which are popular today. Galen believed that a person's behavior is determined not only by his temperament, but also by his surrounding environment.
Kant and Wundt's temperament theory: Kant believed that temperament can first be divided into emotional temperament and action temperament, and each temperament can be further divided into four simple temperaments by being connected with the excitement and relaxation of vitality; Wundt believed that temperament can be divided into emotional temperament and behavioral temperament. Temperament is divided into four types based on the intensity of emotional responses and the speed of change.
Body shape theory: Krezimir believes that a person's body structure has a certain relationship with temperament characteristics and the type of mental illness they may suffer from. According to body shape characteristics, people are divided into three types: plump type (manic-depressive temperament), slender type ( Schizotypal temperament), musculoskeletal temperament (adhesion temperament); American Sheldon believes that the basic formation of reminders is ground into powder - the embryonic leaf is closely related to a person's temperament
Blood type theory: Some scholars believe that a person’s temperament is determined by different blood types.
Hormone theory: high-efficiency chemicals secreted by endocrine cells. The concentration in the blood is extremely low, but it has a significant impact on life and psychological activities.
Section 3 The physiological basis of temperament