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MindMap Gallery Biochemistry Sugar Metabolism

Biochemistry Sugar Metabolism

This is a mind map about biochemical sugar metabolism. The main content is anaerobic oxidation, Aerobic oxidation, glycogen synthesis and decomposition, Gluconeogenesis, etc.

Edited at 2023-12-01 15:20:00

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Biochemistry Sugar Metabolism

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Biochemistry Heptasaccharide Metabolism
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Glucose metabolism

anaerobic oxidation

concept

The process in which one molecule of glucose can be split into two molecules of pyruvate in the cytoplasm is called glycolysis

Glycolysis

A total of ten steps of reaction

Glu converts to G-6-P

Hexokinase (Mg ion)

feedback inhibition

G-6-P

allosteric inhibition

Long chain fatty acyl-CoA

first speed limit

G-6-P transformed into F-6-P

Conversion of F-1-P to F-1,6-P

Really enter glycolysis

Phosphofructokinase-1 (Mg ion)

Allosteric activation: (F-2,6-P),ADP,AMP,(F-1,6-P)

Allosteric inhibition: ATP, citric acid

Second speed limit (slowest)

F-1,6-P is converted into 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate (dihydroxyacetone phosphate)

aldolase

The first five steps are the preparation stage

Conversion of 3-glyceraldehyde phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase

2 molecules of NAD accept hydrogen

3 or 5ATP

Conversion of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate

first substrate level phosphorylation

Phosphoglycerate kinase (Mg)

Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to PEP

Conversion of PEP to pyruvate

Second substrate level phosphorylation

Pyruvate kinase (K and Mg)

allotype

Activation: F-1,6-P

Inhibit: ATP

chemical modification

Phosphorylation

protein kinase A

glucagon activation

Ca, calmodulin-dependent protein kinase

inactivate

The third speed limit

The last five steps are the release stage.

lactic acid production

lactate dehydrogenase

Need NADH

physiological significance

Provides energy quickly without using oxygen

2ATP

Aerobic oxidation

concept

The reaction process in which the body uses oxygen to completely oxidize glucose into CO2 and H2O is called aerobic oxidation of sugar.

reaction process

Glycolysis

Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA

pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1)

Dihydrolipoamide transacetylase (E2)

Dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3)

coenzyme

Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)

CoA, lipoic acid

FAD,NAD

TCA cycle

8 steps reaction

Features

4 dehydrogenations generate 3 molecules of NADH and 1 molecule of FADH2

2 decarboxylation generates 2 molecules of CO2

One substrate level phosphorylation generates one molecule of GTP or ATP

It is not the main link to directly release energy and generate ATP, but to provide sufficient reducing equivalents through four dehydrogenation reactions for subsequent electron transfer and oxidative phosphorylation reactions to generate a large amount of ATP.

process

Acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate condense to form citric acid

citrate synthase

Consumes a high-energy thioester bond

first speed limit

Citric acid is converted into isocitrate by aconitic acid

Oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate

main regulatory site

isocitrate dehydrogenase

NAD accepts hydrogen

One molecule of CO2

second speed limit

Oxidative decarboxylation of α-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA

Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex

NAD accepts hydrogen

One molecule of CO2

The third speed limit

Succinyl-CoA synthase catalyzes substrate-level phosphorylation reactions

succinyl-CoA synthetase

ADP or GDP

Dehydrogenation of succinic acid to fumaric acid

succinate dehydrogenase

TCA cycle operation indicators

Mitochondrial inner membrane (the only one in the TCA cycle)

FAD accepts hydrogen

Fumaric acid adds water to form malic acid

Dehydrogenation of malic acid to oxaloacetate

malate dehydrogenase

NAD accepts hydrogen

significance

Common pathways for decomposition of three major nutrients to produce energy

The hub of metabolism of sugar, fat and amino acids

physiological significance

The main way sugar is broken down to provide energy

Glycolysis

5 or 7ATP

Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

5ATP

TCA cycle

20ATP

30 or 32ATP

Blood sugar and regulation

Blood sugar level: 3.9~6.0mmol/L

Hypoglycemia: less than 2.8mmol/L

Hyperglycemia: higher than 7mmol/L on an empty stomach

Hormone regulation

reduce

insulin

Activate phosphodiesterase

Reduce cAMP levels

Activates pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase

Activate pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

Inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis

Inhibits the synthesis of PEP carboxykinase

Amino acids accelerate muscle protein synthesis and reduce gluconeogenesis raw materials

synthetic fat

rise

glucagon

hepatic glycogenolysis

Inhibit glycogen synthase

Activate glycogen phosphorylase

Inhibit glycolysis and promote gluconeogenesis

Reduce the synthesis of F-2,6-P

Inhibits intrahepatic pyruvate kinase

Promote the synthesis of PEP carboxykinase

Promote lipolysis

Glucocorticoids

Accelerate gluconeogenesis

Inhibits oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

fat mobilization

Adrenaline

Initiates a cAMP-dependent phosphorylation cascade in liver and muscle cells

stress state

diabetes

feature

persistent hyperglycemia and glycosuria

Cause

Partial or complete insulin deficiency, insulin resistance

type

Insulin dependence (type 1)

Non-insulin dependent (type 2)

Gestational diabetes (type 3)

Special type of diabetes (type 4)

complication

Retinopathy

Peripheral neuropathy

peripheral vascular disease

Other metabolic pathways

Uronic acid pathway

Glucose metabolism pathway with glucuronic acid as intermediate product

Generates activated glucuronic acid (UDPGA)

polyol pathway

gluconeogenesis

concept

The process of converting non-sugar compounds (lactic acid, glycerol, glycogenic amino acids, etc.) into glucose or glycogen is called gluconeogenesis

Carboxylation of pyruvate to PEP

Pyruvate changes to oxaloacetate

pyruvate carboxylase

within mitochondria

Cofactor: biotin

Consume ATP

CO2 combined with biotin

Oxaloacetate becomes PEP

PEP carboxykinase

Consume one P~P

Shuttling of oxaloacetate

Oxaloacetate cannot directly penetrate the mitochondrial membrane

malic acid shuttle

malate dehydrogenase

Accompanying the transport of NADH from mitochondria to cytoplasm

aspartate shuttle

aspartate aminotransferase

F-1,6-P is hydrolyzed to F-6-P

fructose bisphosphatase-1

G-6-P is hydrolyzed to Glu

Glucose-6-phosphatase

physiological significance

Keep blood sugar constant

Replenish or restore liver glycogen stores

Maintain acid-base balance

Exuberant ketone body metabolism (kidney)

Glycogen synthesis and breakdown

concept

Glycogen synthesis refers to the process of producing glycogen from glucose, which mainly occurs in the liver and skeletal muscle.

Glycogen synthesis

G-6-P is allosteric to G-1-P

G-1-P and UTP are converted into UDPG and pyrophosphate (rapid hydrolysis)

UDPGase

UDPG synthesizes glycogen

glycogen synthase

α-1,4-glycosidic bond

branching enzyme

α-1,6-glycosidic bond

glycogenolysis

Product: Mainly G-1-P, a small amount of Glu

glycogen phosphorylase

α-1,4-glycosidic bond

You cannot continue when there are four glucose groups left.

debranching enzyme

glucan transferase

α-1,4-glycosidic bond

Transfer 3 glucose groups to the end of a nearby sugar chain

alpha-1,6-glucosidase

α-1,6-glycosidic bond

generate glucose

The difference between liver and muscle

The liver has G-6-P enzyme, which can convert G-6-P into Glu to supplement blood sugar, but the muscles do not.

key enzyme

glycogen synthase

Phosphorylated to active form

glycogen phosphorylase

Dephosphorylated to active form

adjust

chemical modification

Key enzyme phosphorylation

Hormone regulation

glucagon

hepatic glycogenolysis

Adrenaline

muscle glycogenolysis

insulin

Glycogen synthesis

allosteric adjustment

glucose

Inhibits liver glycogen phosphorylase

Energy and Ca

muscle glycogenolysis

pentose phosphate pathway

reaction stage

oxidation stage

G-6-P to PPP

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

NADPH regulation

Total: G-6-P is converted into 2 molecules of NADPH and 1 molecule of ribose-5-phosphate, releasing 1 molecule of CO2

group transfer stage

3 molecules of pentose phosphate are required for all group transfers

1 molecule of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and 2 molecules of F-6-P

physiological significance

Provide ribose phosphate

Synthetic nucleic acids

Remedy synthesis?

Provide NADPH

anabolic reaction hydrogen donor

Hydroxylation reaction

Maintain the reduced state of glutathione (GSH)

Fats and glycerophospholipids

glycerol phosphate