A symbol is necessarily made up of (1) a concrete object or form. (2) the meaning of the idea that it conveys.

However, not all sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols. For example, sneezes,coughs, grunts, and cries usually do not have symbolic value. Linguists maintain that language is primarily speech, and not the written form. Historically speaking, all human languages ​​were spoken before they were written, and there are still many languages ​​in the world today which have not been written down.

Arbitrariness of language makes memorizing words difficult. Arbitrariness of language gives us a lot of fun.

Peculiar to human languages, users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g.we can understand sentence like" A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed",though it does not describe a common happening in the world .

·"Birds sing." ·At one level, it can be divided into three meaningful units (morphemes) . bird -s sing · At another level, it can be analyzed into a sequence of sounds (more precisely, phonemes) /b 3: d, z, s,I,n /

Linguists hold the view that change is natural for all living languages ​​and that such a change is not a sign of corruption and decay. Every language is an efficent system of communication which serves the needs of a particular society. As these needs change, the language tends to change to meet the new needs.

e.g.

the abstract system of a language shared a community of speakers.

the concrete act of speaking in a definite time, place and situation.

copy

one's knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems.

the actual use of language in concrete situations.

Integrate the collective consensus system with your own thinking

the sequential characteristics of speech.

the vertical dimension of a language.

In the English language, there are eight inflectional morephemes.

Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. .1-morpheme boy, desire ·2-morpheme boy ish, desire(e) ble ·3-morpheme boy ish ness, desire(e) bl(e) ity

Minimal: the smallest e.g. schoolboy (x) Meaningful: cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying its meaning. e.g. captain Grammatical: not lexical

a/the/to… is a lexeme

roots

Affix affix

Free morphemes

Bound morphemes

the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words

the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning

Semantically, the root is the most important part that carries the principal meaning. Struturally, the root is that part of a word left when all the affixes are removed. For example, the word "unforgettably" has as its root the free morpheme "forget" while "un" , "tabl(e)" , and " -ly" are all affixational morphemes.

Unlike the term "root" ,both the terms "base" and "stem" are used to refer to a form to which an affix can be added.When the added affix is ​​derivational, the form is called base; and when the added affix is inflectional, it is called a stem.

/t/ /d/ /id/ are allomorphs of the past tense morpheme

{naif) is realized by two allomophs 1. /naif/ in knife 2. /naiv/ in knives

morpheme

morph

allomorph

e.g ox --- oxen child---children

e.g sheep---sheep /'ø/

Latin bonus bonus education exit China tea Kongfu tofu tuina (massage) shumai (siu mai)

walkman Google Baidu

When a new word is created by putting an affix to the base, the process involved in called affixation.

Some new words are created simply by changing their parts of speech.

Conversion is also called Functional shift Functional shift

If two or more separate words are conjoined to produce a form which is used as a single word, this combining process is known as compounding. Words formed in this way are called compound words or compounds.

e.g. smog--smoke fog motel-motor hotel

Front clippings Phone (from telephone) Plane (from airplane)

Back clippings ad (from advertisement) photo (from photograph)

Front and back clippings Flu (from influenza) Tec (from detective)

Phrase clipping pub (from public house) Pop-singer (from popular singer)

WTO----World Trade Organization ISBN----International Standard Book Number

edit ← editor hawk← hawker (one who hunts with a hawk) beg ← beggar

e.g. the, boy, the, dog, chased (22 combinations) The boy chased the dog. The dog chased the boy.

The linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations belong to the same syntactic category

The constiteunts connected by the two lines that are branching from the same point are called the immediate constituents (ICs) of the form above that point. 一个复杂的结构，往往是由许许多多的成分构成的，这些成分按照一定的层次逐级构成。从层次看，每一个层次的结构单位，一般是由两个直接成分构成的。

The basic operation method of direct component analysis method is segmentation. The basic operation procedure is to bisect the syntactic structure layer by layer and find the direct components at each level until it cannot be segmented, so it is also called the dichotomy method.

(1) Disrespect the explanation of the structural relationship between direct components. The direct component analysis method only focuses on revealing the structural level of the sentence, but does not explain the relationship between direct components. Therefore, there is no way to distinguish situations with different syntactic structures at the same structural level. (2) Pay attention to form and despise meaning. In the analysis of syntactic structure, form and meaning are unified and should be paid equal attention to. The direct component analysis method only focuses on formal analysis and does not consider the meaning between direct components, resulting in its limited analytical ability. For example, ambiguous structures caused by semantic relationships cannot be analyzed by direct component analysis.

eg. A sofa is a thing that really exists in this world - a sofa, which is a piece of furniture that is a long, comfortable seat with a back and usually with arms, and which is intended for more than one person to sit on

Many words do not have negative connotation when they are used generally. Nevertheless, in some contexts, they may take on a pejorative meaning. On the other hand, some words or phrases always have negative associations. For example, the English word thirteen is always associated with bad luck and a white elephant is generally regarded as an expensive and useless thing. The connotation of word is language-specific. For example, an English word and a Chinese equivalent may have the same denotative meaning but different connotations.

eg. needle is often associated with pain, illness, blood, thread, knitting, hard to find.

the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

e.g.

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

Gradable pairs----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold,tall-short

Complementary pairs---mutually exclusive and complementary, e.g. alive-dead, male-female,...

Relational/Converse opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife,father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee , give-receive, above-below, ..

the same one word may have more than one meaning

the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form

the habitual association of a word in a language with other particular words in sentences, or rather, the restrictions on how words can be used together. The habitual connection of words with other special words in a sentence, or the restrictions on the use of words together.

Free combinationsFree combinations

Restricted collocations

Figurative idioms Rhetorical idioms

Pure idioms Pure idioms

perform an action

receive an action

Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

make your contribution relevant

Avoid obscurity of expression

Avoid ambiguity

Be brief

Be orderly

Try to make others suffer as little as possible, and try to benefit others as much as possible.

Try to benefit yourself as little as possible and suffer as much as possible.

Would it be possible for you to lend me your dictionary? (Polite) The longer the language. The more energy it takes. The more you suffer. the more polite

Do have some ice-cream! (Polite)

Try to belittle others as little as possible; praise others as much as possible. (It’s polite to compliment others)

Praise yourself as little as possible; put yourself down as much as possible.

Minimize the differences between the two parties; maximize the agreement between the two parties.

Minimize the resentment of both parties; maximize the sympathy of both parties.

The basic assumption underlying the Principle of Relevance is that in any given context, what people say is relevant.

As a simplification, but in the meantime a development of Grice's framework, Relevance Theory is proposed to explain the inference process of understanding an utterance.

strengthen an existing assumption ·Reinforce existing assumptions

contradicting and eliminating an existing assumption. ． rule out existing assumptions

combining with an existing assumption to yield a contextual implication. . Combined with existing assumptions to produce a contextual implication

The more contextual effects it achieves, the more relevant it will be. ·The stronger the contextual effect, the more relevant it is.

it achieves enough contextual effects to be worth the hearer's attention;

it puts the hearer to no gratuitous processing effort in achieving those effects.

Stella

a set of fundamental assumptions that people hold, often unquestioningly. These beliefs have much to do with the origins of human beings; the concept of time, space and reality, etc. Some basic assumptions that people believe in. These beliefs are often related to the origins of mankind and concepts of time and space reality.

A set of priorities that guide "good" or "bad" behaviors, "desirable" or "undesirable" practices, and "fair" and "unfair" actions. A ranking order that guides good and bad, desirable and undesirable, fair and unfair actions.

The collective expectations of what constitute proper or improper behavior in a given situation. What is considered appropriate or inappropriate behavior in a given situation.

strong version

Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region

The non-regional differences that identify different social groups or classes a person belongs to are called social dialects. (social-class dialects, sociolects; or class-dialects.). Non-regional differences that distinguish different social groups or classes to which a person belongs are called social dialects. (social class dialect, social dialect or class dialect.)

A social dialect is a variety associated with a specific social class or group, marking that class or group off from other classes or groups. A social dialect is a variety associated with a particular social class or group, distinguishing this class or group from other classes or groups.

Now along with globalization,English has gradually become a lingua franca which is used for communication among the speakers from different backgrounds. Now with the development of globalization, English has gradually become a lingua franca used for communication between people from different backgrounds.

Pidgin or pidgin refers to a pidgin that is a mixture of different languages. From a purely linguistic point of view, Pidgin is just a stage of language development. It refers to a mixed language produced among people who have no common language but are eager to communicate. It is a contact language among people who speak different languages. ． In China, the most famous Pidgin language is "Pidgin English".

Typically a pidgin originates when speakers of two or more mutually unintelligible languages ​​develop a need to communicate with each other for certain limited or specialized purposes, especially trade. Typically, pidgins arise when speakers of two or more mutually incomprehensible languages ​​need to communicate with each other for some limited or specialized purpose, especially trade.

When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole. E.g. Jamaica(English-based), Haiti (French-based ) When a pidgin language becomes the dominant language of a speech community and is acquired as their mother tongue by the children of that speech community, it is called a creole. For example, Jamaican (English-based), Haitian (French-based)

Martin Joos (1967, cited in Chen, 2009, pp. 102-103) provided one of the most common classifications of speech styles using the criterion of formality, which tends to subsume subject,matter,audience and occasion. Martin Joos' formality criterion is the most common classification criterion for language style, and it tends to combine subject, matter, audience, and occasion.

Given that the primary goal of advertising is to attract and persuade the public, language in advertisements should be compact, vivid, visual, emotional and attractive and it is therefore, usually characterized with distinctive features concerning the use of words and sentence structures. Given that the main purpose of advertising is to attract and persuade the public, the language in advertising should be compact, vivid, visual, emotional and attractive. Therefore, advertising usually has distinctive features in terms of wording and sentence structure.

Simply put, learners receive linguistic input from speakers in their environment and positive reinforcement for their correct repetitions and imitations. As a consequence, habits are formed and learning follows.

Lado (1957) proposed that the easiest second language structures (and presumably first acquired) are those which exist in the first language with the same form, meaning, and distribution and are thus available for positive transfer. ( sickbed has positive transfer, which is consistent with Chinese thinking —If there is less Chinese thinking, there will be more negative transfer vs. hospital bed, sickroom vs.ward)

When there are similarities between two languages, the learner will acquire target language structures with ease; and when there are differences, learners will have difficulty.

The strong form claims all L2 errors could be predicted by identifying the differences between the learner's native language and the target language. Lee(196 8), for instance, stated that " the prime cause , or even the sole cause , of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learner 's native language. (Keep this in your mind! ) Langnan and recitation—an effective means of resisting negative migration

the weak form proposes that contrastive analysis could only be used as a possible reason to explain rather than predict.

Learners ' errors are by no means an indicator of failure. Instead, they are "significant" in that they provide to the researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, and what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in the discovery of the language

the causes of learner's errors

1

2

The first is to collect a massive, specific, or incidental sample of the learner language. The sample could consist of natural language use (assignment) or be elicited either clinically or experimentally. (let students speak and then measure with instruments, elicitation: encounter to what foreigners would say)

The second is to identify errors in the sample.

The third is to describe learners' errors,

The fourth is to explain the errors psycholinguistically.

The fifth is to evaluate the errors, i. e. establishing the effect that different errors have on the person addressed

The sixth is to correct errors.

Second language learners have two independent means of developing knowledge of a second language, that is, acquisition (natural environment, innate acquisition subconscious, a "feel" for correctness) and learning (education conscious, "knowing about" a language).

we acquire the rules of a language in a predictable sequence-some rules are acquired early while others are acquired late. (Learn words first, then grammar)

the learned system acts only as an "editor" or "monitor", making minor changes and repairing grammatical errors. "fluency" in second language performance is due to "what we have acquired", not "what we have learned"

SLA is dependent on the availability of comprehensible input before the learner's internal processing mechanism can work. “Input Hypothesis” (Input Hypothesis) is a theory proposed by linguist Stephen Krashen as part of his "Natural Language Acquisition Theory" (Natural Language Acquisition Theory). This theory asserts that language learners' ability to understand and acquire a second language (L2) is primarily affected by the quality of input they receive. Input Hypothesis emphasizes that language acquisition can be promoted by exposing learners to comprehensible input, especially input that is above their language level (beyond the learners current level and can be understood by some efforts). This theory has had a certain impact on the design of language teaching and learning methods. Hypothesis emphasizes that language acquisition can be promoted by exposing learners to comprehensible input, especially input that is above their language level. This theory has had a certain impact on the design of language teaching and learning methods.

Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis believes that during the process of learning a language, there is a blocking phenomenon of language in people's brains. This blocking phenomenon is due to emotions filtering the input information, which is called "emotional filtering". Simply put, emotion becomes an imaginary barrier which prevents learners from taking in input. The affective filter hypothesis was originally proposed by Dulay and Burt in 1977. They believed that affective filter is an internal processing system that subconsciously organizes learners' absorption of language through emotional factors. This hypothesis aims to explain how emotional factors influence the process of foreign language learning. In the process of children learning English, if the learning content is boring, they are not interested in the theme of the story, the dialogue is unrealistic and other factors cause the child to have negative emotions and attitudes, these may become a "filter" of knowledge and hinder the improvement of the child's English proficiency. promote. tense, angry, anxious, or bored making it unavailable for acquisition.

noticing

hypothesis testing

conscious reflection